Objective This study aims to analyze the impact of spatiotemporal changes in land use patterns on regional carbon storage in Heilongjiang Province, predict future evolution under multiple scenarios, and quantitatively identify the main driving factors of spatial differentiation in carbon storage. Methods Based on four periods of land use data in Heilongjiang Province from 1990 to 2020, the PLUS-InVEST-Geodetector model was coupled to analyze changes in land use patterns and their carbon effects. Future land use and carbon storage in 2060 were simulated under four scenarios: Natural development, cultivated land protection, ecological protection, and urban development. Results From 1990 to 2020, carbon storage in Heilongjiang Province showed a net decrease of 53.46×107 t, with a spatial pattern of high in central regions and low in surrounding areas, high in the north and low in the south, and high in mountainous areas and low in plains. The conversion of forest land to cultivated land, grassland, and unused land was the primary pathway for carbon loss. Multi-scenario simulations indicated that carbon storage in 2060 followed the order: ecological protection scenario (2 012.71×107 t) > natural development scenario (2 000.59×107 t) > urban development scenario (1 996.01×107 t) > cultivated land conservation scenario (1 992.08×107 t). Geodetector analysis revealed that the spatial differentiation of carbon storage was mainly influenced by factors such as elevation, distance to water bodies, and normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI). Interactions among factors were mainly characterized by two-factor enhancement and nonlinear enhancement, with the strongest interactions observed between digital elevation model (DEM) and annual precipitation, DEM and distance to rivers, population density and DEM, and DEM and NDVI. Conclusion During the historical period, the conversion of forest land to cultivated land and grassland in Heilongjiang Province led to a continuous net decrease in carbon storage. Future projections indicate that carbon storage is the highest under the ecological protection scenario, with factor interactions centered on DEM dominating the spatial differentiation of carbon storage. Therefore, it is necessary to control the conversion of land types with higher carbon density to those with lower carbon density, strictly implement black soil protection policies, and adopt ecological protection measures. The impacts of natural and socio-economic factors should be comprehensively considered when formulating regional ecological protection and economic development policies, so as to promote the sustainable development of the regional economy in Heilongjiang Province.
MaoYongfa, ZhouQigang, WangTao, et al. Spatiotemporal variations and quantitative attribution of carbon stock in the Three Gorges Reservoir area using a coupled PLUS-InVEST-Geodetector model[J].Resources and Environment in the Yangtze River Basin,2023,32(5):1042-1057.
GanRong, ShenJiawei, BianWeilong, et al. Carbon stock estimation and driving factor analysis of the Yiluo River basin based on the RHESSys model[J].Environmental Science,2025,46(12):7780-7792.
ZhangPengyan, YangDan, LiuYu, et al. Research progress on carbon source/sink effects of land-use change from a composite ecosystem perspective[J].Acta Ecologica Sinica,2025,45(5):2058-2073.
ChenNing, XinCunlin, TangDaobin, et al. Multi-scenario land use optimisation and carbon stock assessment in Northwest China[J].Environmental Science,2023,44(8):4655-4665.
[9]
TangXuli, ZhaoXia, BaiYongfei, et al. Carbon pools in China′s terrestrial ecosystems: New estimates based on an intensive field survey[J].Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America,2018,115(16):4021-4026.
[10]
SteveM R, LucyR H, JaredD. Mapping carbon storage in urban trees with multi-source remote sensing data: Relationships between biomass, land use, and demographics in Boston neighborhoods[J].Science of the Total Environment538.(2015):1039-1041.
HouJiankun, ChenJianjun, ZhangKaiqi, et al. Spatiotemporal variations in carbon stock in the Yellow River source region based on InVEST and GeoSoS-FLUS models and their responses to future scenario patterns[J].Environmental Science,2022,43(11):5253-5262.
MaYin, ZhengMinrui, ZhengXinqi, et al. Prediction and spatiotemporal evolution analysis of green infrastructure based on CA-Markov and MSPA: A case study of the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei urban agglomeration[J].Acta Ecologica Sinica,2023,43(16):6785-6797.
WangChaoyue, GuoXianhua, GuoLi, et al. Land-use change in Northwest China and its impact on carbon stocks based on FLUS-In VEST: A case study of the Hohhot-Baotou-Ordos-Yulin urban cluster[J].Acta Ecologica Sinica,2022,31(8):1667-1679.
ZhiFei, ZhouZhenhong, ZhaoMing, et al. Spatiotemporal evolution characteristics of carbon stock in Hefei's ecosystem based on PLUS and InVEST models[J].Journal of Soil and Water Conservation,2024,38(2):205-215.
DongChun, DuLidan, ZhangYusen. Spatiotemporal variation mechanisms of carbon stock in the Lesser Khingan Mountains and their contribution to carbon emission reduction[J].Geological Bulletin of China,2025,44(7):1242-1253.
ZhaoYincheng, QinMenglin, PangYayue, et al. Simulation of ecological space carbon sink evolution and driving factors in the Beibu Gulf urban agglomeration based on the FLUS-InVEST model[J].Bulletin of Soil and Water Conservation,2022,42(3):345-355.
LiYuheng, ZhaoNing, ZhangYun, et al. Evolution and multi-scenario prediction of land habitat quality in the northeast black soil region: A case study of Heilongjiang Province[J].Environmental Science,2025,46(12):7958-7970.
WeiXile, LiQian, DengAiping, et al. Spatiotemporal evolution, prediction and driving factors analysis of carbon stocks in Sichuan Province based on land use change[J].Research on Soil and Water Conservation,2025,32(3):373-383.
SunFanghu, FangFengman, HongWeilin, et al. Analysis and prediction of carbon stock evolution in Anhui Province based on PLUS and InVEST models[J].Journal of Soil and Water Conservation,2023,37(1):151-158.
GongShengxuan, ZhangYuhu, LiYuhang. Changes and projections of carbon stocks in the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei region based on the PLUS-InVEST model[J].Resources and Environment in Arid Areas,2023,37(6):20-28.
CaiLeshan, TangXianglong. Multi-scenario simulation and carbon stock assessment of the three-life space in ecological transition zones: A case study in Gansu Province[J].Environmental Science,2025,46(6):3806-3817.
ZhangPingping, WangFei, WangLeiqin, et al. Spatiotemporal variations in agricultural production efficiency at the county level in the Loess Plateau[J].Agricultural Research in Arid Areas,2018,36(2):218-225.
YangJie, XieBaopeng, ZhangDegang. Spatiotemporal variations in carbon stock of the Yellow River basin based on InVEST and CA-Markov models[J].Chinese Journal of Ecological Agriculture (Chinese and English),2021,29(6):1018-1029.
[37]
ZhangYu, YuanJi, YouChengming, et al. Contributions of national key forestry ecology projects to the forest vegetation carbon storage in China[J].Forest Ecology and Management,2020,462117981-117981.
LiuKang, ZhangHan, ZhangDaojun, et al. Scenario simulation and driving factors of carbon stock in the Loess Plateau ecosystem: A study based on the PLUS-InVEST-Geodector model[J].Chinese Journal of Environmental Science,2025,45(4):2159-2170.
WangHongyan, ZhengWenlu, GaiZhaoxue. Spatiotemporal variation characteristics of carbon stock in the black soil region based on the InVEST model[J].Acta Scientiae Circumstantiae,2024,44(7):473-481.
YuXiaobo, ZhouYuxin, PuYifan, et al. Spatiotemporal analysis of landscape pattern dynamics and carbon stock evolution in multiple scenarios of Suiling County, Heilongjiang Province[J].Northern Horticulture,2024(2):68-78.
LiXue, LiWen, GaoYu. Land cover simulation and carbon stock assessment of Daqing City based on the FLUS-InVEST model[J].Environmental Science,2024,45(10):5983-5993.
ZhanZedong, XiGuangyue, RenBingzhang, et al. Spatial patterns of carbon storage and carbon sequestration potential in five counties of Qiqihar, Heilongjiang Province[J].Geological Bulletin of China,2024,43(9):1470-1484.
QiHongyun, ZhouChuanfang, SunYanfeng, et al. Carbon source/sink temporal variations in farmland ecosystems of Heihe City, Heilongjiang Province based on carbon footprint analysis and their contribution to carbon neutrality[J].Geological Bulletin of China,2025,44(7):1254-1271.
LiJihong, ZhiWeifeng, ChenWenqu, et al. Impact of land use change in Harbin City on carbon stock based on remote sensing data[J].Forest Engineering,2018,34(2):40-44.
XiongGuolai, WuXuequn, YangMinglong, et al. Analysis of spatiotemporal variations and influencing factors of carbon stock in karst regions based on the PLUS-InVEST model[J].Research on Soil and Water Conservation,2025,32(6):307-315.
ZhaoHui, LiuQian, ZhangMin, et al. Analysis of the spatial patterns and driving factors of ecosystem services in Beijing based on the XGBoost-SHAP model[J].Environmental Science,2026,47(2):1025-1037.
WangYiming, ZhangZengxin, ChenXi. Analysis of spatiotemporal variations and driving factors of carbon stocks in the Poyang Lake Eco-Economic Zone based on the PLUS-InVEST-GeoDetector model[J].Environmental Science,2026,47(7):2720-2732.
JiaJiang, GuoWeiling, XuLiuyang, et al. Spatiotemporal evolution and driving factors of carbon stocks in Anhui Province using a coupled PLUS-InVEST-GeoDetector model[J].Environmental Science,2025,46(3):1703-1715.