In recent years, transcranial applications utilizing near-infrared light have been widely adopted in neuroscience and clinical medicine due to its high penetration capability in biological tissues. However, the development of these approaches is significantly constrained by strong scattering and energy attenuation caused by the skull, leading to wavefront distortion, energy diffusion, and reduced spatial precision in target brain regions. This constitutes a core bottleneck for related techniques. To overcome these limitations, wavefront shaping techniques have emerged. While these techniques aim to control incident light wavefronts for focusing through scattering media, traditional single-point focusing methods are often insufficient for regional or patterned modulation of complex biological structures.To address these challenges, this study proposes and experimentally validates a novel transcranial customized light field modulation method based on transmission matrix (TM). Our approach employs a binary-modulated TM algorithm, which has been shown to outperform continuous modulation in low signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) environments, which are typical of thick biological tissues. By measuring the TM, this method effectively compensates for skull-induced scattering, enabling stable, micron-scale optical focusing. Leveraging the TM's linear superposition property and the high refresh rate of a digital micromirror device (DMD), this method can rapidly and precisely generate arbitrarily shaped customized light fields according to predefined targets.Experiments were conducted using human skull specimens ranging from 4.7 mm to 9.1 mm in thickness. The method achieved stable focusing through a 6.7 mm thick skull with a peak-to-background ratio (PBR) of 57.8, compared to 117.7 for diffused glass. Across various skull thicknesses, PBR remained stable, demonstrating the robustness of the method. Despite exponential attenuation of transmitted light intensity with increasing skull thickness (attenuation coefficient of 0.53 at 850 nm), the system reached a maximum effective penetration depth of 10.1 mm. Furthermore, high-fidelity reconstruction of a leaf-shaped light field was successfully demonstrated through an 8.3 mm thick skull specimen, showcasing its unique capability for spatial addressing and morphological matching of irregular targets. Dynamic grating scanning enabled full pattern reconstruction in less than 0.2 seconds, at a rate up to 22 kHz.This customized light field modulation capability offers a new paradigm for next-generation non-invasive optical therapeutic techniques requiring precise spatial energy distribution. It balances efficacy and safety by enabling precise energy delivery within safe thresholds, thereby minimizing risks to non-target areas and enhancing therapeutic efficiency at lower total power. While current TM acquisition relies on transmission-mode detection, future work will focus on non-invasive feedback mechanisms and enhancing system speed to address dynamic physiological changes in vivo. This research provides crucial technical assurance and insights for developing safer, more efficient transcranial optical diagnosis and treatment technologies, particularly for precise neuromodulation and targeted phototherapy.
IraniF, PlatekS M, BunceS, et al.Functional near infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS): An emerging neuroimaging technology with important applications for the study of brain disorders [J].Clin Neuropsychol, 2007, 21: 9-7.
[2]
ScholkmannF, KleiserS, MetzA J, et al.A review on continuous wave functional near-infrared spectroscopy and imaging instrumentation and methodology [J].Neuroimage, 2014, 85: 6-27.
[3]
ArenthP M, RickerJ H, SchultheisMT, et al.Applications of functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) to neurorehabilitation of cognitive disabilities [J].Clin Neuropsychol, 2007, 21: 38-57.
[4]
PintiP, TachtsidisI, HamiltonA, et al.The present and future use of functional near‐infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) for cognitive neuroscience [J].Ann NY Acad Sci, 2020, 1464: 5-29.
[5]
ChernovM, RoeA W.Infrared neural stimulation: A new stimulation tool for central nervous system applications [J].Neurophotonics, 2014, 1: 011011.
PingA, PanL, ZhangJ, et al.Targeted optical neural stimulation: A new era for personalized medicine [J].Neuroscientist, 2023, 29: 202-220.
[8]
ShahdadianS, WangX, WanniarachchiH, et al.Neuromodulation of brain power topography and network topology by prefrontal transcranial photobiomodulation [J].J Neural Eng, 2022, 19: 066013.
[9]
DoleM, AuboirouxV, LangarL, et al.A systematic review of the effects of transcranial photobiomodulation on brain activity in humans [J].Rev Neurosci, 2023, 34: 671-693.
[10]
VellekoopI M, MoskA P.Focusing coherent light through opaque strongly scattering media [J].Opt Lett, 2007, 32: 2309-2311.
[11]
VellekoopI M, MoskA P.Phase control algorithms for focusing light through turbid media [J].Opt Commun, 2008, 281: 3071-3080.
[12]
ConkeyD B, BrownA N, Caravaca-AguirreA M, et al.Genetic algorithm optimization for focusing through turbid media in noisy environments [J].Opt Express, 2012, 20: 4840-4849.
[13]
FangL, ZuoH, YangZ, et al.Binary wavefront optimization using particle swarm algorithm [J].Laser Phys, 2018, 28: 076204.
[14]
FangL, ZuoH, PangL, et al.Image reconstruction through thin scattering media by simulated annealing algorithm [J].Opt Lasers Eng, 2018, 106: 105-110.
[15]
YangZ, FangL, ZhangX, et al.Controlling a scattered field output of light passing through turbid medium using an improved ant colony optimization algorithm [J].Opt Lasers Eng, 2021, 144: 106646.
[16]
YangJ, HeQ, LiuL, et al.Anti-scattering light focusing by fast wavefront shaping based on multi-pixel encoded digital-micromirror device [J].Light Sci Appl, 2021, 10: 149.
[17]
YaqoobZ, PsaltisD, FeldM S, et al.Optical phase conjugation for turbidity suppression in biological samples [J].Nat Photonics, 2008, 2: 110-115.
[18]
YuZ, XiaM, LiH, et al.Implementation of digital optical phase conjugation with embedded calibration and phase rectification [J].Sci Rep, 2019, 9: 1537.
[19]
ChengZ, LiC, KhadriaA, et al.High-gain and high-speed wavefront shaping through scattering media [J].Nat Photonics, 2023, 17: 299-305.
[20]
ShenY, LiuY, MaC, et al.Focusing light through biological tissue and tissue-mimicking phantoms up to 9.6 cm in thickness with digital optical phase conjugation [J].J Biomed Opt, 2016, 21: 085001.
[21]
PopoffS M, LeroseyG, CarminatiR, et al.Measuring the transmission matrix in optics: An approach to the study and control of light propagation in disordered media [J].Phys Rev Lett, 2010, 104: 100601.
[22]
ConkeyD B, Caravaca-AguirreA M, PiestunR.High-speed scattering medium characterization with application to focusing light through turbid media [J].Opt Express, 2012, 20: 1733-1740.
[23]
XuJ, RuanH, LiuY, et al.Focusing light through scattering media by transmission matrix inversion [J].Opt Express, 2017, 25: 27234-27246.
[24]
LiuJ, ZhaoW, ZhaiA, et al.Imaging through scattering media using differential intensity transmission matrices with different Hadamard orderings [J].Opt Express, 2022, 30: 45447-45458.
[25]
GouX, LiW, HeW, et al.Dominated binary phase distribution governed by information theory in noisy scattering systems [J].Appl Opt, 2024, 63: 7129-7134.
[26]
YuH, LeeK, ParkY.Ultrahigh enhancement of light focusing through disordered media controlled by mega-pixel modes [J].Opt Express, 2017, 25: 8036-8047.
[27]
ZhuangZ, HoH P.Application of digital micromirror devices (DMD) in biomedical instruments [J].J Innov Opt Health Sci, 2020, 13: 2030011.
OkuyamaS, NagayaT, OgataF, et al.Avoiding thermal injury during near-infrared photoimmunotherapy (NIR-PIT): The importance of NIR light power density [J].Oncotarget, 2017, 8: 113194-113201.
[30]
ČižmárT, DholakiaK.Shaping the light transmission through a multimode optical fibre: Complex transformation analysis and applications in biophotonics [J].Opt Express, 2011, 19: 18871-18884.
[31]
GuoS, SternR, ZhangH, et al.Speedy light focusing through scattering media by a cooperatively FPGA-parameterized genetic algorithm [J].Opt Express, 2022, 30: 36414-36428.