Objective The evolutionary mechanisms of trade-offs and synergies among ecosystem services were investigated in order to provide scientific guidance for promoting high-quality regional eco-economic development. Methods The Jinghe River basin, a region with intensive human activities on the Loess Plateau, was selected as a study area. The spatiotemporal evolution characteristics of trade-offs and synergies among four key ecosystem services, including water yield, habitat quality, soil conservation, and carbon storage, from 2000 to 2023 were analyzed using the InVEST model and ecosystem service network methods. Their driving mechanisms were further explored from the perspectives of natural ecology, socio-economics, and landscape pattern. Results ① From 2000 to 2023, water yield and soil conservation exhibited an N-shaped trend of increase—decrease—increase. Habitat quality remained stable at approximately 0.69, whereas carbon storage showed an overall increasing trend with slight fluctuations. Water yield showed a strong trade-off with habitat quality, but weak trade-offs with soil conservation and carbon storage. Habitat quality exhibited strong synergistic relationships with both soil conservation and carbon storage, among which the synergy between habitat quality and carbon storage was the most significant. ② Ecosystem service network analysis showed that precipitation significantly promoted water yield and soil conservation, whereas increasing temperatures inhibited habitat quality and carbon storage. Vegetation coverage (NDVI) positively impacted ecological functions. Meanwhile, increases in land use intensity, population density, and GDP negatively impacted ecosystem services. Higher landscape aggregation and large patch patterns contributed to the maintenance of ecological functions, whereas landscape fragmentation exerted inhibitory effects. ③ The generalized additive model showed that slope was the dominant factor in the water yield-habitat quality relationship. Population density and slope dominated the water yield-soil conservation and water yield-carbon storage relationships, respectively. Land use intensity was the dominant factor in the habitat quality-soil conservation relationship. NDVI and land use intensity were the key driving factors in the habitat quality-carbon storage and soil conservation-carbon storage relationships. Conclusion Significant spatiotemporal trade-offs and synergistic relationships exist among ecosystem services in the Jinghe River basin. These relationships are jointly influenced by natural, social, and landscape pattern factors. The results indicate that social factors, primarily population density and land use intensity, play a dominant role. Future watershed sustainable development policies should consider the interaction among the three types of factors and emphasize the role of social factors in order to achieve coordinated development of ecology and economy.
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