电化学氧化去除抗生素:颗粒电极的应用、技术耦合及关键影响参数

卢龙 ,  苏琳琳 ,  张语琪 ,  龙琭璐 ,  杨刚

四川师范大学学报(自然科学版) ›› 2026, Vol. 49 ›› Issue (4) : 474 -494.

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四川师范大学学报(自然科学版) ›› 2026, Vol. 49 ›› Issue (4) : 474 -494. DOI: 10.3969/j.issn.1001-8395.2026.04.004
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电化学氧化去除抗生素:颗粒电极的应用、技术耦合及关键影响参数

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Electrochemical Oxidation for Antibiotic Removal: Application of Granular Electrodes, Technology Coupling and Key Influencing Parameters

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摘要

水体中抗生素污染对生态系统和公众健康构成严重威胁.传统的水污染处理技术因效率低、易产生二次污染,所以难以满足治理需求.电化学氧化技术凭借强氧化能力与温和反应条件成为高效处理抗生素废水的关键方法之一,其中填充颗粒电极的三维电催化系统通过颗粒极化形成大量微电极,有效克服了传统二维系统电极面积有限、传质慢等瓶颈.系统综述颗粒电极的研究进展,重点阐述碳基与金属基颗粒电极的制备策略、改性方法及其催化性能,探讨其与过硫酸盐、光催化等体系的耦合机制与协同增效机制,并分析溶液的pH值、电流密度等关键运行参数对降解过程的影响,为三维电催化技术优化及抗生素废水高效处理提供理论依据与技术参考.

Abstract

Antibiotic contamination in water bodies poses a serious threat to ecosystem and public health. Conventional water treatment technologies are inadequate due to their low efficiency and secondary pollution. Electrochemical oxidation technology has emerged as a key approach for efficiently treating antibiotic wastewater, owing to its strong oxidation capacity and mild reaction conditions. The three-dimensional electrocatalytic system filled with granular electrodes (PEs) forms numerous micro-electrodes through particle polarization, effectively overcoming the limitations of traditional two-dimensional systems, such as fixed electrode surface area and slow mass transfer. This review systematically summarizes recent advances in granular electrodes, with emphasis on the preparation strategies, modification methods, and catalytic performance of carbon-based and metal-based granular electrodes. The coupling mechanisms and synergistic effects with persulfate oxidation, photocatalysis, and other systems are discussed. Additionally, the influence of key operational parameters are analyzed, such as pH and current density on the degradation process. This work aims to provide theoretical and technical support for the optimization of three-dimensional electrocatalytic technology and the efficient treatment of antibiotic-containing wastewater.

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关键词

电化学氧化 / 颗粒电极 / 抗生素降解 / 三维电催化 / 技术耦合

Key words

electrochemical oxidation / granular electrodes / antibiotic degradation / three-dimensional electrocatalysis / coupling technique

引用本文

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卢龙,苏琳琳,张语琪,龙琭璐,杨刚. 电化学氧化去除抗生素:颗粒电极的应用、技术耦合及关键影响参数[J]. 四川师范大学学报(自然科学版), 2026, 49(4): 474-494 DOI:10.3969/j.issn.1001-8395.2026.04.004

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抗生素污染已成为全球环境科学领域的焦点问题.在医疗、畜牧养殖等行业,抗生素的广泛使用导致大量含抗生素废水排入环境中1.据统计,中国作为世界上最大的发展中国家和农业大国,生产了约70种抗生素,平均年产量为21万t,占世界总产量的20%~30%.其中,30%~90%的抗生素未被生物体完全代谢便随废水进入水体环境2.这些抗生素进入水生生态系统后,通过吸附、运输和生物浓缩等过程,在水基质、沉积物和水生生物中不断积累3-5.这不仅会对水生动植物产生慢性或急性毒性6,还可能促使环境微生物产生耐药性,甚至引发“超级耐药细菌”的出现,严重威胁生态平衡和人类健康4-6.因此,开发高效水环境抗生素处理技术已成为环境保护领域的迫切需求.
传统的抗生素废水处理技术存在显著局限性,难以满足实际治理需求7.生物处理技术依赖微生物代谢降解污染物,但高浓度抗生素易导致微生物失活8,且对磺胺类、喹诺酮类等难降解抗生素的去除率常低于50%9,难以满足深度处理要求;物理吸附技术仅实现抗生素的相转移而非彻底降解,吸附饱和后的吸附剂需进一步处置,易引发二次污染的同时增加了成本10-12.在此背景下,电化学氧化技术凭借氧化能力强、反应条件温和、无二次污染等优势13-14,成为解决难降解抗生素废水的重要技术方向.在电化学降解污染物的研究领域,其核心作用机制可明确划分为直接氧化与间接氧化两大路径15.在直接氧化过程中,抗生素分子与阳极表面直接接触,通过界面电子转移反应实现抗生素的直接降解16;而间接氧化过程经电极反应原位生成氧化剂(如∙OH、SO4·-等自由基,以及H2O2、O3等非自由基)释放于溶液中17-18,这些活性物种可与溶液中的污染物发生非选择性或选择性氧化反应,将其逐步去除.
电催化氧化过程可在二维(2D)与三维(3D)电极系统中进行19.其中,传统的二维电催化反应器由两块平行放置的阳极和阴极电极板以及填充在反应器之间的电解质组成,具有结构简单、适用范围广和操作简便等优点20.然而,二维电催化方法存在接触面积小、电流利用率低、传质速率慢以及电极使用寿命短等缺点21-23.为了克服这些缺点,将颗粒状材料填充在传统电化学反应器的阴极和阳极之间,就构成了三维电催化反应器24.填充的颗粒状材料在电场的作用下被极化,从而形成大量带电的微电极25.这些被极化的颗粒被称为第三电极或颗粒电极(PEs)21.显然,三维电催化反应器中的颗粒电极能够显著扩大有效电极面积,增加催化反应的活性位点1426,同时还能缩短物质传递距离和提高电解质的导电性,因此能够有效地降解污染物27.
基于上述背景,本文拟梳理碳基与金属基颗粒电极的制备改性策略及催化性能,分析颗粒电极与过硫酸盐氧化、光催化氧化等体系的耦合机制,并探讨溶液的pH值、电流密度等关键操作参数对反应过程的影响.本文旨在系统整合颗粒电极应用于电化学氧化去除抗生素的研究进展,明确该领域的研究重点与待突破方向,进而为三维电催化技术的优化设计、高性能颗粒电极的研发以及抗生素废水的高效处理提供理论支撑与技术参考.

1 颗粒电极的分类与应用

颗粒电极的性能在决定污染物降解效率方面起着至关重要的作用28.理想的颗粒电极应表现出3个关键特性,包括高催化活性、优异的导电性和有效的污染物吸附能力29-30.目前主流颗粒电极分为碳基材料与金属基材料两大类(图131.两类材料通过不同改性策略优化性能,在抗生素降解中展现出独特的优势.

1.1 碳基材料

碳基颗粒电极以活性炭(AC)、碳纳米管(CNTs)、石墨烯(Gr)等为主要原料32,凭借独特的物理化学特性在电化学领域展现出显著优势,如下所述:固有的高导电性可为电子转移提供低阻抗路径,有效加快电化学反应动力学速率9;较大的比表面积能提供充足活性位点,促进反应底物的吸附富集并与界面进行反应33;在不同pH电解质环境中均能保持稳定结构与化学状态,显著提升循环使用寿命34;同时,碳材料来源广泛、制备成本较低,且具备优异的生物相容性35,为其在抗生素治理领域奠定了基础.然而,传统的碳基颗粒电极仍存在性能短板,主要表现为电流效率偏低、本体及界面电阻较高、颗粒团聚易引发局部短路、对特定反应的催化活性不足等问题28.针对以上缺陷,研究者们已开发多种改性策略,其中应用较广的策略包括以下2种:一是掺杂Pt、Fe、Cu、Ce、Ni、Mn和Co等金属及其金属氧化物纳米颗粒以构建高活性复合界面2036;二是引入N、S和P等杂原子调控电子结构,从而进一步优化其电化学性能37-38.

1.1.1 活性炭电极

活性炭是目前应用最广泛的碳基颗粒电极39,其导电性好、比表面积大(通常范围为500~1 700 m2·g-125、pH适应性强且可通过农林废弃物(如椰壳、木屑、秸秆等)等低成本原料制备12.因此,在兼顾处理效能的同时具备环境经济性.同时,采用非金属、金属及其氧化物对活性炭进行改性,是提升活性炭颗粒电极性能的重要技术方向.

Han等40以三聚氰胺为氮源、碳酸钾为造孔剂,通过高温活化法制备氮掺杂活性炭(NAC),将其涂覆于石墨毡(GF)形成NAC/GF阴极,构建电芬顿系统用于四环素(TC)去除(图2(a)),该体系属于非金属掺杂活性炭材料在污染物降解领域的应用.在最优降解条件下(Fe2+浓度0.5 mmol·L-1、电流0.2 A、pH=2.8),NAC-1000/GF阴极电芬顿系统在120 min内对TC的降解率达83.07%,相较于未改性的AC/GF系统对TC的降解率提升了29.57%,且矿化效率达75.3%,高于AC/GF约58.4%.同时,AC-1000/GF阴极电芬顿系统的电能消耗比AC/GF系统低230.44 kW·h·kg-1,具有更优的电流效率.此外,NAC-1000/GF对TC和H2O2的吸附能力分别提升了9.16%和31.09%(图2(b)(c)),能通过吸附富集TC与H2O2,将·OH生成区与TC降解区控制在阴极附近,缩短传质距离,减少·OH的无效消耗,从而强化TC的降解效果.在电化学性能上,NAC改性显著提升了阴极的氧还原反应(ORR)活性与2e- ORR选择性:循环伏安曲线(CV)(图2(d))显示,改性后的NAC-900、NAC-1000、NAC-1100阴极氧还原激发电位较AC正移,其电流响应起始电位从-0.42 V变为-0.25 V,这表明材料的电子转移动力学速率加快,同时电流响应强度提升,更易发生电子转移过程;线性扫描伏安法(LSV)结合Koutecky-Levich(K-L)方程分析结果(图2(e)~(g))显示,NAC-1000阴极的电子转移数(n)更接近2,2e- ORR选择性更高,能更高效地通过2e- ORR生成H2O2,为·OH的产生提供充足前驱体,进而保障电芬顿降解反应的持续高效进行.同时,在pH=2.8和pH=7时,该系统对TC吸附效果稳定;此外,NAC-1000/GF对苯、亚甲基蓝等其他污染物的吸附能力也优于AC/GF,体现出一定程度的污染物去除普适性.氮掺杂改性使阴极2e- ORR选择性提升,其中NAC-1000/GF的2e- ORR选择性达63.12%,可持续高效生成H2O2并转化为·OH,保障降解反应稳定进行.

此外,Fang等41以颗粒活性炭为基底,通过浸渍-煅烧法制备了金属掺杂的碳基颗粒电极Cu-Sb-Sn/GAC,构建三维电氧化反应器(3DER)用于去除TC(图3(a)),核心是利用Cu(Ⅰ)/Cu(Ⅱ)氧化还原电对原位电生成Cu(Ⅲ),强化电催化氧化效能,属于过渡金属掺杂活性炭材料在水污染治理中的应用.从降解效率来看,在最优Cu掺杂比例下,Cu0.02-Sb-Sn/GAC在60 min内对TC去除率达98.4%,伪一级降解速率常数为0.057 min-¹(图3(b)),相较于未掺杂Cu的Sb-Sn/GAC及Fe、Co、Ni掺杂样品有显著提升(图3(c)(d));Cu0.02-Sb-Sn/GAC电流效率达41.1%,能耗仅为54.2 kW·h·kg-1(以COD计量:表示每去除1 kg水体中以化学需氧量(COD)计量的有机污染物需要的能耗),显著优于文献中其他主流颗粒电极(如TiO₂/GAC、Ti-Sn/γ-Al₂O₃等).同时,该系统矿化效果明显,且铜、锑、锡金属离子溶出质量浓度始终低于10 μg·L-1,无二次污染风险.另外,Cu-Sb-Sn/GAC复合材料在电化学性能测试中性能同样优异(图3(e)~(g)):LSV测试显示其析氧反应(OER)电位为2.81 V(vs. RHE),与·OH生成平衡电位高度匹配,该电位既能有效抑制OER副反应的发生,又可促进·OH的脱附与转化;该复合材料的塔菲尔斜率低至332.76 mV·dec-¹,远低于Fe、Co、Ni掺杂的Sb-Sn/GAC样品,表明其电催化反应阻力更小、活性更强;电化学阻抗(EIS)结果显示,材料的电解质内阻(RΩ)和电荷转移电阻(Rct)分别仅为5.1 Ω和4.9 Ω,电荷转移速率显著提升;双电层电容(Cdl)测试值达0.42 mF·cm-²,对应计算的电化学活性表面积(ECSA)为Fe/Co/Ni-Sb-Sn/GAC样品的1.5~2.6倍,可提供丰富的电催化活性位点.此外,DFT计算进一步证实,Cu元素可优化复合材料的电子结构,显著提升其对H2O和TC的吸附能力,同时能降低·OH生成的自由能垒,使电催化反应在热力学上更易进行.不仅如此,Cu0.02-Sb-Sn/GAC在宽pH范围(3~11)均能稳定工作,即使在pH=3或pH=11的极端条件下,60 min内TC去除率仍超80%,且对不同初始浓度的TC均有高效去除能力.此外,经过多轮循环实验,电极表面晶体结构稳定,铜、锑、锡元素分布均匀,TC去除率始终维持在94%以上,展现出良好的长期运行稳定性.

1.1.2 碳纳米管电极

CNTs具有一维纳米结构(直径从几纳米至几十纳米,长度从微米至毫米级),兼具超高强度(钢铁的数百倍)、柔韧性与优异导电性,是构筑高性能颗粒电极的理想基材42-43.CNTs的独特结构可提供丰富活性位点,加速电子转移,且易通过酸预处理等方式活化表面,增强与氧化剂的协同作用.

Ge等44以酸预处理活化的CNTs为核心材料,构建了电场诱导双极电极体系(CNTs/PM)用于环丙沙星(CIP)去除,通过电场驱动CNTs形成双极/单极电极,协同激活高锰酸钾(PM)并介导直接电子转移(图4(a)).该体系降解效率优异,在15 min内可实现CIP完全降解(图4(b)),伪一级降解速率常数达0.27 min-1图4(c)),是PM氧化的48.4倍,且5次循环后降解率仍超98%(图4(d)),其单位阶(目标污染物的浓度降低一个数量级)电能消耗仅0.13 kW·h·m-3,远低于传统的高级氧化技术(图4(e)).同时,该体系适用性广泛,在pH为3.0~11.0环境下以及自来水、湖水、河水等实际水体中均能高效降解CIP(图4(f)),且对常见阴离子(如Cl-等)的耐受性强,还可降解双酚A、TC等多种污染物(图4(g)).该体系无需支持电解质且在500 mL规模实验中性能稳定.此外,电场能降低CNTs电子转移能垒,其双极/单极电极特性可促进PM还原生成活性锰物种并强化直接电子转移,解决了传统体系传质限制与催化剂失活的问题.

1.1.3 石墨烯电极

石墨烯作为碳基材料家族的重要成员,具有单原子层二维晶体结构,其独特的电子传输特性、超大比表面积及优异的化学稳定性1945,有效弥补了传统碳基颗粒电极导电性不均、活性位点易团聚的缺陷,成为三维电极系统中提升电催化性能的关键材料.石墨烯的蜂窝状晶格结构可提供丰富的表面缺陷与边缘活性位点.同时,石墨烯具有良好的柔韧性易与其他材料复合46,通过调控其微观结构进一步优化吸附与催化的协同效应,在抗生素降解领域展现出巨大应用潜力.

Guo等47以石墨烯、聚吡咯(PPy)与聚氨酯(PU)为原料,通过原位氧化聚合法制备了导电聚氨酯/聚吡咯/石墨烯(CPU/PPy/Gr)复合颗粒电极,并将其应用于三维电极反应器中实现左氧氟沙星(LEV)的电化学去除(图5(a)).该复合电极的表征结果显示,石墨烯以透明片状结构成功负载于PU表面,PPy呈规则珊瑚状均匀包覆于上述复合体系中,且各组分间存在化学相互作用而非单纯的物理混合(图5(b)~(e));CPU/PPy/Gr的BET测试表明其比表面积为7.803 m²·g-1、孔径为3.329 nm,该多孔结构为LEV吸附与反应提供充足空间(图5(f)).在最优条件(初始pH=7、电压为6 V、曝气量为2.0 L·min-1、初始LEV质量浓度为20 mg·L-1、Na2SO4电解质浓度为7 mmol·L-1)下,该三维反应器180 min内LEV的降解率超90%,且三维系统降解效率显著优于二维系统,证实颗粒电极是反应的主要发生场所(图5(g)).毒性与稳定性评估显示,虽部分中间产物毒性高于母体LEV,但反应300 min后TOC去除率达70%以上(图5(h)),且颗粒电极经5次循环使用后LEV去除率仍超过80%(图5(i)),充分体现该石墨烯复合颗粒电极在LEV废水处理中的高效性、稳定性与生态安全性,为氟喹诺酮类抗生素的电化学降解提供了可靠的材料与工艺参考.

综上所述,活性炭、碳纳米管(CNTs)和石墨烯作为三类主流的碳基颗粒电极,在电化学氧化去除抗生素方面各有千秋(表1).活性炭以其经济性和卓越的吸附性能,在实际应用中基础广泛,并通过掺杂改性不断焕发新的催化活力;CNTs凭借其独特的电子传输能力和电场响应特性,在突破反应动力学限制方面展现出巨大潜力;石墨烯则以其顶尖的导电性能和优异的复合能力,为构建高性能、多功能的复合电极提供了理想载体.

针对不同碳基材料的特性差异,未来的研究应首先着力于通过原子级掺杂与微观结构设计,精准优化碳材料的电子结构与活性位点密度,充分激发其本征催化活性;同时,需重点突破材料在实际应用中的关键瓶颈,提升电极的长期运行稳定性与抗复杂水体干扰的能力,开发低成本、绿色可规模化的制备工艺,推动高性能颗粒电极从实验室走向工程化应用.此外,还应深入探索碳基颗粒电极与其他抗生素污水处理技术(如过硫酸盐氧化技术、光催化氧化技术等高级氧化技术)之间的协同机制,系统阐明多技术耦合下的界面反应路径与能量传递规律,为实现抗生素的高效深度降解提供新的技术路径与理论支撑.

1.2 金属基颗粒电极

金属基颗粒作为三维电极系统中另一类核心颗粒电极材料,电极以金属单质(如Fe、Cu、Ni、Mn、Co)13、金属氧化物(如Fe3O4、CuO、MnO2、PbO2959为核心组分,凭借金属元素独特的电子转移特性、丰富的价态及高效的催化活性位点60,在抗生素降解过程中展现出不可替代的优势.此外,金属基颗粒电极的制备原料来源广泛,既可采用纯金属粉末,也可利用工业废渣(如钢渣、矿渣等)中的金属成分进行改性制备202561,可实现在降低成本的同时利用固废资源.但是,传统金属基颗粒电极仍存在一定局限性:部分金属(如铜、镍、铁)在反应过程中易发生溶出2062,可能导致二次污染;单一金属材料的导电性与稳定性易受电解质的pH、温度等环境因素影响,长期运行易出现颗粒团聚或活性位点失活63.为此,当前研究多通过构建金属-金属复合、金属-载体复合(如金属/高岭土、金属/沸石)或金属氧化物异质结等结构,进一步优化其电化学性能、循环稳定性与环境适应性64-68,使其更适用于复杂抗生素废水的高效处理,为三维电催化技术的工业化应用提供关键材料支撑.

Zhang等69以铜渣(冶金工业固废)与偏高岭土为原料,按质量比1∶1通过磷酸酸活化法制备了酸活化铜渣基地聚物(GP)颗粒电极,将其用于构建EC/PDS/GP电化学氧化体系以降解磺胺甲恶唑(SMX)(图6(a)).该GP颗粒电极凭借表面丰富的结构态Fe(Ⅱ),可高效活化PDS与阴极生成的H2O2,协同电化学过程强化活性氧(ROS)生成.在优化操作条件(初始pH=3.0、电流密度20 mA·cm-²、极距3 cm、GP投加量1 g·L-1、电解质浓度75 mmol·L-1)下,该体系60 min内SMX去除率达99.1%(图6(b)),且5次循环使用后SMX去除率仍保持在78%以上(图6(c));XPS分析表明,反应过程中GP表面Fe(Ⅱ)向Fe(Ⅲ)转化(图6(d)),证实其通过铁物种介导的自由基路径实现SMX降解,同时结构态Fe(Ⅱ)是PDS活化的主要活性位点,溶解态Fe(Ⅱ)作用有限.该研究不仅实现了铜渣固废的高值化利用,更拓展了金属基颗粒电极在复杂抗生素废水处理中的应用场景,为工业固废衍生金属基颗粒电极的制备与应用提供了新范式.

2 颗粒电极与多种体系的耦合

单一颗粒电极体系存在活性物种生成量有限、反应动力学不足等问题,将其与过硫酸盐氧化、光催化氧化、过氧乙酸氧化、臭氧氧化等体系耦合27可通过协同效应强化活性物种生成、抑制副反应,进一步提升抗生素降解效率与矿化率,成为三维电催化技术的重要发展方向.

2.1 颗粒电极与过硫酸盐氧化的耦合

过硫酸盐(如PMS、PDS)凭借易储存、氧化还原电位高的特性70,在难降解污染物处理中具有应用潜力71,但单独使用时存在活化效率低、反应动力学缓慢的问题.而颗粒电极与过硫酸盐的耦合体系,可通过颗粒电极的结构优势与催化活性实现过硫酸盐的高效活化,显著提升抗生素降解效率,成为三维电催化技术的重要发展方向.

近期研究证实,杂原子共掺杂可显著提升碳基颗粒电极与过硫酸盐的耦合效果.Yao等72制备的磷氮共掺杂活性炭(PCN)颗粒电极(图7(a)),在无外加化学前驱体条件下与过硫酸盐耦合构建了三维电解系统,对磺胺甲噁唑(SMX)降解性能优异.PCN具有石墨相结构(拉曼光谱中ID/IG=0.71,图7(b))、超高亲水性(图7(c))与较大比表面积(103.9 m²·g-1),可缩短传质距离;PCN表面吡啶型N、吡咯型N及P—C键、P—O键(图(d)~(f))作为活性中心,能高效活化过硫酸盐并促进SO4·-1O2生成.实验数据显示,该耦合体系对SMX的降解速率常数(k=0.146 7 min-1)是传统二维电解系统的7.68倍,能量消耗(0.001 455 kW·h·mg-1)仅为二维系统的0.37倍(图7(g));在含Cl-、HCO3-、NO3-的实际水体(模拟医院废水、合成尿液)中,SMX降解率仍在90%左右(图7(h)),抗干扰能力强.该耦合体系还具备良好环境适应性与安全性.PCN经5次循环后,比表面积(98.6 m2·g-1)、晶体结构及元素组成稳定,无金属离子溶出.

相较于单一颗粒电极体系,该耦合系统依靠微电解强化与活性物种协同生成的双重机制,既解决过硫酸盐活化效率低的问题,又弥补颗粒电极活性物种产量有限的短板,有望为复杂抗生素废水处理提供经济环保方案.

2.2 颗粒电极与光催化氧化的耦合

颗粒电极耦合光催化体系的核心是构建光催化与电催化的协同机制,通过将颗粒电极的结构优势(高比表面积、双极微电解特性、优异导电性)与光催化的太阳能利用能力结合,解决单独光催化与单独电催化(或等离子体)的技术局限73.

例如,Guo等7以氟甲喹(FLU)为目标污染物,通过水热法制备了还原石墨烯-TiO2(rGO-TiO2)颗粒电极,将其与脉冲放电等离子体(PDP)系统耦合,构建了典型的颗粒电极与光催化协同的体系(如图8(a)).该体系中,PDP在放电过程中会产生以400~505 nm为主的UV-Vis光,而rGO-TiO2经改性后光吸收范围红移至505 nm,恰好与PDP的光输出范围匹配;同时,rGO-TiO2作为颗粒电极填充于PDP反应器中,在电场作用下形成微电解槽,进一步强化光催化过程的活性物种生成与利用,为颗粒电极耦合光催化的应用提供了典型案例.

单独rGO-TiO2颗粒电极的活性物种(如·OH、O2-等)生成完全依赖外部电场驱动的微电解反应,需持续输入电能,能量消耗高且活性物种产量有限.光催化功能的引入可通过光生载流子自主产生活性物种,无需额外电场能量补充:在PDP系统产生的400~505 nm可见光照射下(与rGO-TiO2光吸收范围匹配,图8(b)),TiO2受激发产生光生电子-空穴对(e--h+),其中光生空穴(h+)可直接氧化水体中H2O或OH-生成·OH(反应式:H2O + h+ → ·OH + H+),光生电子则通过rGO快速转移至颗粒电极表面,还原O2生成O2-并进一步转化为·OH(反应式:O2 + e-→O2-;2O2- + 2H+→H2O2 + O2).实验检测显示,在有无光照条件下,颗粒电极的·OH产量差异显著:光照时,rGO-TiO2颗粒电极60 min内·OH浓度达0.181 mmol·L-1图8(c)),较无光照条件下(约0.09 mmol·L-1)提升了101%,证实光催化可有效弥补单独颗粒电极活性物种生成的能量依赖与产量不足的问题.另外,单独rGO-TiO2颗粒电极在无光照时颗粒电极的OER电位约为2.65 V(vs. RHE),大量电能被用于水的氧化而非目标污染物FLU降解.而光催化过程可通过光生载流子调节颗粒电极界面电荷分布,优化催化选择性:一方面,光生电子通过rGO快速转移,抑制颗粒电极表面正电荷积累,减少OER发生;另一方面,光催化诱导TiO2晶格中生成Ti3+图8(d)),Ti3+形成的表面缺陷位点可增强对FLU的吸附选择性(吸附能为-6.07 eV),同时降低·OH的生成能垒.EIS测试表明,光照条件下rGTi-5样品的Nyquist图半圆直径最小(图8(e)),这表明rGO-TiO2的电荷转移阻力较小,直接证实光催化对颗粒电极的提升作用.

2.3 颗粒电极与其他体系的耦合

过氧乙酸(PAA,CH3COOOH)作为一种低毒、高稳定性的氧化剂,与颗粒电极耦合时,可通过颗粒电极的催化活化与电子转移协同作用,生成高选择性的有机自由基(如乙酰氧基自由基(CH3COO·)、过乙酰氧基自由基(CH3COOO·))74-75,更适用于复杂水体中对污染物的靶向降解76.例如,Yu等77采用Cu(Ⅰ)锚定的氮化碳纳米管(Cu(Ⅰ)-TCN)/可见光/PAA耦合体系,在20 min内实现了对磺胺异噁唑(SIZ)的完全降解,其降解速率常数是Cu(Ⅰ)-TCN/可见光体系的25倍,且能在不同pH、共存离子环境及实际水体(如珠江水、自来水)中高效降解SIZ以及其他磺胺类、氟喹诺酮类等多种抗生素.然而,将碳基材料或金属基材料构建为颗粒电极与PAA进行耦合的电化学协同体系的潜力尚未得到充分发掘.现有研究多聚焦于将碳材料作为粉末催化剂直接投加至PAA体系中,忽略了其在三维电极系统中作为微电解单元所能提供的独特优势.这一体系的缺失,使得研究者们对颗粒电极耦合PAA氧化系统中的作用机制的认知存在显著局限,其中界面反应过程、主导活性物种的贡献以及针对不同结构抗生素的降解选择性等关键科学问题仍未解答.因此,系统探索颗粒电极与PAA耦合体系的构建原理、降解效能与反应机制以填补该领域的研究缺憾,并挖掘其在难降解有机废水深度处理中的巨大应用潜力显得尤为重要.

另外,臭氧既可以直接氧化有机物,也可以在催化剂的作用下产生·OH,间接氧化有机物.然而,臭氧氧化技术具有氧化选择性,导致臭氧利用率低、运行成本高,从而限制了其工业应用78.三维电极技术与臭氧氧化技术的结合可以充分发挥2种水处理技术的优势,提高·OH生产效率.臭氧气体的引入可以直接辅助有机物的降解,颗粒电极可以负载臭氧催化氧化所需的催化剂,从而实现2种技术的互补优势79-81.目前,已有学者利用该耦合体系开展焦化废水82、染料废水83及高尿素废水84的去除研究,但针对抗生素废水的去除研究当前仍存在显著空白.

综上所述,不同的耦合体系通过独特的协同机制,在活性物种生成、能耗控制、抗干扰能力和目标污染物选择性等方面各具特色(表285-97.未来的研究应依据目标废水的特定水质特征与处理要求,有针对性地选择和优化耦合体系,通过揭示界面反应机制、精准调控活性物种的比例与演化路径,最终实现对抗生素的高效、经济和深度去除.

3 颗粒电极降解抗生素的关键操作参数

颗粒电极在废水处理中的表现高度依赖于操作参数,包括溶液的pH值、电流密度、颗粒电极的用量、电解质种类与浓度以及颗粒电极与驱动电极的位置关系等2079.这些参数将直接影响反应动力学、能量效率和污染物去除效率98,即使是微小的参数调整,也会显著改变反应路径和自由基的生成机制.

3.1 溶液pH值

pH作为三维电化学体系的关键环境参数,其变化通过调控颗粒电极表面电荷状态、活性物种生成路径及污染物存在形态进行调控,显著影响抗生素降解效率99-100.在酸性条件下,颗粒电极表面易带正电,可通过静电吸引富集带负电的抗生素分子,同时促进·OH等强氧化性自由基的生成101-102;在中性至碱性条件下,部分金属基颗粒电极易发生表面羟基化或金属离子沉淀,从而抑制催化活性103-104.

以核壳结构的CoFe2O4/CoFe@C颗粒电极在电化学辅助PDS活化体系中CIP的降解研究105图9(a))为例,清晰揭示了pH依赖的降解规律及内在机制.在以CoFe2O4/CoFe@C为颗粒电极、网状玻璃碳(RVC)为阴极的混合PDS活化体系中,初始pH值从3到11对CIP降解效率与动力学的影响呈现显著差异(图9(b)).在酸性条件下,该体系降解效能最优:当pH=3时,CIP在7.5 min内即可实现完全降解(CIP的去除率>99.9%),伪一级降解速率常数达0.783 min-1,远高于其他pH条件(图9(c)).这一结果与颗粒电极表面电荷特性及金属离子溶出行为密切相关:该颗粒电极的零电荷点为3.82(图9(d)),pH=3时电极表面带正电,与PDS的S2O82-发生静电吸引,显著提升PDS在电极表面的吸附与活化效率.同时,酸性环境促进钴、铁离子溶出,溶出的Co2+/Co3+与Fe2+/Fe3+通过价态循环高效活化PDS与阴极生成的H2O2,持续生成·OH,且·OH在酸性条件下稳定性更高,进一步强化CIP降解.而该体系在碱性条件下的降解效能则发生显著下降.pH=11时,降解率降至83.2%,伪一级降解速率常数仅为0.128 min-1图9(b)(c)).这主要源于三方面因素:一是强碱性环境中,颗粒电极表面带负电,与S2O82-产生静电排斥,抑制PDS活化;二是金属离子易形成氢氧化物沉淀覆盖电极表面活性位点,导致Co2+/Co3+与Fe2+/Fe3+的价态循环受阻(图9(c));三是·OH在碱性条件下易与OH-反应生成活性更低的HO2-,且PDS的活化路径向非自由基方向偏移(图9(e)(f)),而该体系中非自由基物种的氧化能力弱于·OH,最终导致降解效率下降.

3.2 电流密度

电流密度作为三维电化学体系的核心能量输入参数,其大小直接调控颗粒电极的极化程度、活性物种生成速率及反应动力学效率,对颗粒电极处理抗生素的效果产生显著影响106.在低电流密度下,颗粒电极极化不充分,微电解槽数量较少,活性物种生成量有限,导致抗生素降解效率偏低107;随着电流密度升高,电极表面电子转移速率加快,颗粒电极的极化效应增强:对于直接氧化过程,电流密度的提高加速了电子转移速率,促进了阳极表面的直接氧化;对于间接氧化过程,电流密度越高,表明会产生更多氧化能力强的氧化中间体26.然而,电流密度不能无限提高,过高的电流密度可能会导致负面后果,如OER副反应的增强、ROS的无效消耗和大量能量的浪费98108.同时,在高电流密度下,自由基可能会自我消耗或被其他物质猝灭,这减少了有效自由基的数量,从而降低降解效率.

Wang等109的工作呈现了施加电流密度对Photo/NC-Fe2O3(Ⅱ)/EC/PMS体系中TC降解性能的影响规律(图10(a)).由图10(b)可知,随着施加电流密度从0增至12.50 mA·cm-2,TC的降解效率从82.4%显著提升至100%,对应的表观速率常数则从0.175 min-1增至0.483 min-1,表明适宜的电流密度可有效强化体系对TC的降解动力学.其核心作用机制在于:电流密度的提升能够促进NC-Fe2O3(Ⅱ)在电极表面的极化程度,加速电极反应进程并诱导更多ROS生成,而ROS作为体系中降解TC的关键活性物质,其浓度增加直接推动了TC的氧化降解效率提升.然而,当电流密度进一步增至18.75 mA·cm-2时,体系对TC的去除效率反而出现下降.这是由于过高的电流密度会引发体系中OER、析氢反应(HER)等副反应,此类副反应不仅消耗体系中的活性物种与能量,还会削弱NC-Fe2O3(Ⅱ)的有效极化程度,降低其催化活性,最终导致TC降解效率降低.

3.3 颗粒电极用量

颗粒电极用量是三维电化学芬顿体系的另一核心调控参数之一,其投加量直接影响系统的传质效率与活性物种生成能力,进而引导抗生素的降解效能.当用量不足时,颗粒电极在阴阳极间分布稀疏,难以形成足量微电解槽,活性位点供给不足会限制·OH等自由基的生成效率,导致抗生素降解速率下降110;而用量过高则易造成颗粒团聚,不仅会降低活性位点的可用性,还会阻碍溶液中污染物与活性物种的传质扩散,反而削弱降解效果111.因此,针对不同基质与金属掺杂的颗粒电极,需通过实验确定最优用量,以平衡反应效能与能耗.

Fan等112以蓝花楹壳为碳源,经Ce和Cu共掺杂制备了复合颗粒电极,在三维电化学Fenton体系中对CIP的降解(图11(a))效果随用量呈现显著的非线性变化:在初始pH=5、曝气量250 mL·min-1、外加电压10 V、Fe2+浓度 4 mmol·L-1的条件下,Ce-Cu/BC用量对CIP降解率的影响呈现“先升后降”的趋势(图11(b)).当Ce-Cu/BC用量从1 g逐步增加至4 g时,CIP降解率持续提升.此时体系内颗粒电极的多孔结构为CIP吸附提供了充足空间,Ce3+/Ce4+与Cu+/Cu2+的价态循环高效活化阴极生成的H2O2,持续产生·OH,且颗粒间无明显团聚,传质过程顺畅,活性物种与CIP的接触效率达到最优.

当Ce-Cu/BC用量超过4 g后,CIP降解率开始显著下降.这一现象源于过量颗粒电极在反应装置内孔隙率降低,CIP分子难以扩散至颗粒表面的活性位点,同时团聚引发的局部短路问题减少了电子的有效转移,抑制了阴极O2还原生成H2O2的过程,也阻碍了铈、铜离子的价态循环,最终导致·OH生成量减少,降解效能下滑.此外,能耗数据显示,当颗粒电极用量为5 g时,明显高于用量为4 g时的能耗,进一步证实了最优用量对兼顾降解效率与经济性的重要性.

3.4 电解质种类与浓度

在电催化氧化反应中,电解液(又被称作辅助电解液或支持电解液)的核心作用是提升溶液导电性,在特定条件下还可参与辅助电解过程113.对于三维电解系统而言,电解液浓度的提升能直接增强系统导电性,进而增大运行电流、加快物质传递速率,最终提高有机污染物的降解效率110.

电解质的类型与浓度对电催化氧化过程的降解效果具有密切影响.在电化学过程中,常用的电解质包括Na₂SO₄、NaCl、K₂SO₄、KCl、K₃PO₄、Na₂CO₃和NaNO₃等114.但非所有废水处理场景都需额外添加电解质115.对于含盐量本身较高的废水,无需再补充电解质;部分研究者通过阴极曝气手段生成大量氢氧根离子,在提升电解液浓度的同时,省去了向阴极添加电解质的步骤79.

4 总结与展望

本文围绕电化学氧化技术去除废水中抗生素的核心需求,聚焦颗粒电极的技术价值展开梳理.首先,明确颗粒电极是突破传统二维电催化系统局限的关键,碳基材料经改性后可提升导电性与活性位点数量、金属基材料依托金属价态循环强化催化,2类材料均在典型抗生素降解中表现出高效能;其次,阐述颗粒电极与多体系的耦合创新价值:通过与过硫酸盐氧化、光催化氧化等技术结合,可构建协同作用机制,解决单一体系活性物种生成有限、反应动力学不足的问题,显著提升抗生素降解效率与矿化率,进而拓展了电化学氧化技术的适用场景.梳理关键操作参数的调控规律:溶液pH值、电流密度、颗粒电极用量及电解质特性等参数,通过影响颗粒电极表面电荷状态、活性物种生成路径及传质效率,直接关乎降解效果,为实际工艺参数优化提供了理论依据.整体而言,本文构建了颗粒电极在电化学氧化去除抗生素领域的技术框架,为该技术的后续发展奠定基础.

基于本文综述,未来研究亟需从以下关键瓶颈寻求突破,并推动该技术向工业化应用迈进.

首先,在耦合体系构建方面,现有研究仍存在显著断层.尽管碳基材料作为粉末催化剂活化过氧乙酸(PAA)的研究已有报道,但将其构建为颗粒电极并纳入三维电化学反应器,利用其微电场效应强化PAA活化与污染物靶向降解的机制仍处于空白,这限制了该体系能量利用效率与处理效能的进一步提升.同理,颗粒电极与臭氧氧化体系的高级耦合技术在降解染料、焦化废水等方面展现出潜力.然而,针对抗生素类新兴污染物的降解研究及应用验证仍近乎缺失,其对于抗生素的特异性降解路径、副产物生成规律等关键问题有待阐明.

其次,在材料与工艺的工业化适配性上,当前颗粒电极技术仍普遍面临金属离子溶出导致的二次污染风险、长期运行中结构失稳以及复杂水体背景成分(如高盐度、天然有机物)引发的催化毒化等瓶颈.未来应着力于通过构建核壳结构、开发稳定载体(如石墨烯气凝胶)等策略,从材料设计源头提升电极的耐久性与环境兼容性.

此外,研究不能仅停留于模拟废水中的单一污染物降解,应开展基于实际废水(如医院、养殖废水)的多污染物协同控制研究,揭示抗生素与共存污染物间的竞争降解机制,并开发与之匹配的、低成本且可规模化的电极制备与反应器放大工艺,最终完成从实验室高性能向工业化高效益的跨越.

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基金资助

国家自然科学基金(21806115)

四川省科技计划(2021ZDZX0012)

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