Objective This study aims to assess the water resource security status of China's five major energy and food production regions Northeast, North, Northwest, Southwest and East China from 2001 to 2021 by quantifying virtual water flows of energy and food production, thereby providing a scientific basis for optimizing regional water resource management strategies. Methods By using the water footprint quantification of energy and food production and the modified water stress index method, this study investigated the virtual water flows in China's five regions (Northeast, North, Northwest, Southwest and East China) from 2001 to 2021 under the influence of food and energy flows. Results The overall consumption of virtual water for food and energy in the five regions demonstrated a significant increasing trend. Specifically, the virtual water footprint of food increased from 262.05 billion m3 in 2001 to 366.93 billion m3 in 2021, while the virtual water footprint of energy peaked at 4.43 billion m3 in 2017. Furthermore, an increasing amount of virtual water embedded in food and energy flowed from water-scarce regions (Northeast and Northwest China) to the economically developed East China. Specifically, the virtual water outflow through food trade from Northeast China rose from 33.309 billion m3 (2001) to 78.5 billion m3 (2021). Meanwhile, the virtual water outflow of energy from Northwest China grew from 0.188 billion m3 (2001) to 1.216 billion m3 (2021). East China, as the primary importing region, saw its virtual water inflow of energy and food production expanded from 8.9 billion m3 (2001) to 55.11 billion m3 (2021). In terms of water resource stress, Northeast China was under severe stress for a long time, Northwest China transitioned from no stress to mild stress, and North, East and Southwest China maintained a no-stress level. Conclusion In response to increasing water resource stress, it is imperative to optimize and adjust adaptive water resource strategies in key water-consumption regions, improve the water-food-energy coordinated management framework, and implement rational structural adjustments of regional water resources and water allocation measures.
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