Objective Freeze-thaw (F-T) action is a major factor influencing soil erosion in cold regions. The Qinghai–Xizang Plateau experiences pronounced seasonal F-T cycles, with soil freezing in winter and thawing in early spring. This study aims to elucidate the response of slope erosion to F-T action. Methods Using alpine soil as the study material, a series of indoor simulated rainfall experiments were conducted to analyze the effects of F-T action on slope erosion and sediment transport modulus under combinations of different rainfall intensities (40, 60, and 80 mm/h) and slope gradients (5°, 10°, 15°, and 20°). Furthermore, three prediction models of sediment transport modulus were established: a single-factor model, a regression model, and an incremental model. Results 1) After the F-T action, the sediment transport modulus on the slope increased significantly (p<0.05), with an increase ranging from 16.74% to 86.87%. Under low rainfall intensity (40 mm/h), the increase was the most pronounced, with an average rise of 54.37%, which was higher than those under higher rainfall intensities (60 and 80 mm/h). High rainfall intensity tended to mask part of the F-T action on erosion. 2) Both before and after F-T, the sediment transport modulus exhibited a linear positive correlation with rainfall intensity and slope gradient (y=ax+b), and their effects showed an interactive relationship. On non-F-T slopes, as the slope gradient increased, the influence of rainfall intensity on sediment transport modulus gradually strengthened. After F-T action, there was a critical slope gradient (about 15°) for the effect of rainfall intensity on sediment transport modulus. When the slope gradient increased to this critical value, the effect of rainfall intensity reached its maximum and subsequently began to weaken. 3) Stepwise regression was used to establish the non-F-T sediment transport model Tc1=0.047 43SQ+1.842 4Q-66.33 (R²=0.99, p<0.05) and the F-T sediment transport model Tc2=0.016 012Q²+0.065 52SQ-10.09 (R²=0.98, p<0.05). The slope sediment transport modulus was mainly influenced by rainfall intensity and the interaction between rainfall intensity and slope gradient. Before F-T, rainfall intensity explained 70.58% of the variance in sediment transport modulus, and the interaction effect explained 28.50%, with a residual error of 0.91%. After F-T, the explanatory power of rainfall intensity decreased to 57.60%, while that of the interaction effect increased to 40.44%. These results indicated that F-T action weakened the direct effect of rainfall intensity on sediment transport modulus but enhanced its interaction with slope gradient. Conclusion The research findings can provide a theoretical basis for the quantitative assessment and control of soil erosion in alpine regions.
SHENQ K, LIUX G, ZHOUX, et al. Spatio-temporal variation patterns of diurnal freeze-thaw cycles of the near-surface soil on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau between 2002 and 2020[J].Acta Geographica Sinica,2023,78(3):587-603.
WANGW G, WANGB, GUW M, et al. Effect of freeze-thaw cycles on soil aggregate stability and microstructure of black soil[J].Journal of Soil and Water Conservation,2022,36(1):66-73.
[9]
YUEY, NIJ R, CIAISP, et al. Lateral transport of soil carbon and land-atmosphere CO2 flux induced by water erosion in China[J].Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America,2016,113(24):6617-6622.
XIAOZ N, LIZ Q, ZHAOL, et al. Precursor signals for climate prediction based on thermal conditions of the Tibetan Plateau and Indian Ocean[J].Climatic and Environmental Research,29(2):216-228.
[12]
ZHANGK, ZHANGC C, WANGZ D, et al. Validation of soil detachment rate equations on spring thaw period slopes: Insights from sediment concentration and transport capacity[J].Water Resources Research,2024,60(12):e2024WR038411.
[13]
ZHANGX Y, ZHANGY Q, QIJ Y, et al. Effects of changes in freeze-thaw cycles on soil hydrothermal dynamics and erosion degradation under global warming in the black soil region[J].Water Resources Research,2025,61(3):e2024WR038318.
[14]
ZHANGY P, FUY, XUJ Z, et al. Impact of freeze–thaw cycling on the stability and turnover of black soil aggregates[J].Geoderma,2024,449:e117004.
SUNB Y, WUZ G, LIZ B, et al. Effects of freeze-thaw on soil detachment capacity and erosion resistance[J].Transactions of the Chinese Society of Agricultural Engineering,2020,36(11):57-65.
DAIL C, KEX, ZHANGF W, et al. Characteristics of hydro-thermal coupling during soil freezing-thawing process in seasonally frozen soil regions on the Tibetan Plateau[J].Journal of Glaciology and Geocryology,2020,42(2):390-398.
ZHANGF B, LIX T, SHENN, et al. Quantitatively partitioning organic carbon loss by interrill and rill erosion on the loess slope[J].Acta Pedologica Sinica,2023,60(5):1398-1408.
[21]
GOVERSG, WALLINGD E, YAIRA, et al. Empirical relationships for the transport capacity of overland flow[A]//WALLING D E, YAIR A, BERKOWICZ S, et al. Erosion, transport and deposition processes[C].Wallingford: IAHS Press,1990:45-63.
[22]
KINNELLP I A. Interrill erodibilities based on the rainfall intensity-flow discharge erosivity factor[J].Australian Journal of Soil Research,1993,31(3):319-332.
[23]
BULYGINS Y, NEARINGM A, WESTL T. Interrill soil erosion processes: Part I[J].Transactions of the ASAE,45(2):331-338.
[24]
SHENH, WANGG, ZHANGR. Rainfall intensity and slope gradient effects on rill initiation and erosion rates under controlled conditions[J].Soil and Tillage Research,2016,155:63-71.
[25]
ZHANGF, HUY D, FANX M, et al. Controls on seasonal erosion behavior and potential increase in sediment evacuation in the warming Tibetan Plateau[J].Catena,2022,209:e105797.
[26]
JOHNSONW M. Soil taxonomy: A basic system of soil classification for making and interpreting soil surveys[M]. 2nd Edition. Washington U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service. Agriculture Handbook No.436,1975.
[27]
WANGR Z, HUX. Freeze-thaw processes correspond to the protection-loss of soil organic carbon through regulating pore structure of aggregates in alpine ecosystems[J].Soil,2024,10(2):859-871.
[28]
LIUJ J, ZHANGK D, SHIW B, et al. Effects of freeze-thaw on the detachment capacity of soils with different textures on the Loess Plateau, China[J].Journal of Hydrology,2024,644:e132082.
ZHAOY J, ZHENGF L, WUB L, et al. Effects of freeze-thaw action on snowmelt, wind and rainfall erosion in Chinese typical mollisol region[J].Journal of Soil and Water Conservation,2024,38(4):63-71.
[31]
WUZ L, FANGH Y. Snowmelt erosion: A review[J].Earth-Science Reviews,2024,250:e104704.
ZHAOG T, HANZ, ZOUW L, et al. Influences of drying-wetting-freeze-thaw cycles on soil-water and shrinkage characteristics of expansive soil[J].Chinese Journal of Geotechnical Engineering,2021,43(6):1139-1146.
[34]
WEIP J, DUJ J, BAHADURA, et al. Soil erosion and risk assessment on the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau[J].Communications Earth and Environment,2025,6:e365.
LIUQ H, YAOX P, MAJ L,et al.Research progress and prospects on summer extreme precipitation over the Qinghai-Xizang Plateau[J].Transactions of Atmospheric Sciences,2024,47(5):737-754.
HAOA H, XUEX, YOUQ G, et al. Review on precipitation change over the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau in recent 60 years[J].Journal of Desert Research,2023,43(2):43-52.
[39]
JIAOC L, NIUF J, HEP F, et al. Assessment of freeze-thaw erosion by retrogressive thaw slump on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau combined with geophysical methods[J].NPJ Natural Hazards,2025,2:e46.
SUNB Y, XIAOJ B, LIUC G, et al. Study on factors affecting soil detachment capacity of thawing period in the region of seasonal freeze-thaw[J].Journal of Sediment Research,2018,43(1):51-57.
[42]
WANGM M, ZHANGS, WANGG C, et al. Increased plant productivity exacerbates subsoil carbon losses under warming via nitrogen mining[J].Nature Geoscience,2025,18(6):510-517.
CHENF H, WANGY F, ZHENX L, et al. Research on the environment impact of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau under global change and the countermeasures[J].China Tibetology,2021(4):21-28.
FUB J, OUYANGZ Y, SHIP, et al. Current condition and protection strategies of Qinghai-Tibet Plateau ecological security barrier[J].Bulletin of Chinese Academy of Sciences,2021,36(11):1298-1306.