College of Earth Science and Engineering,Shandong University of Science and Technology,Shandong Qingdao 266590,China
LÜ Dawei,born in 1980,is a professor and doctoral supervisor. He is mainly engaged in teaching and scientific research on coal geology and deep time palaeoclimate. E-mail: lvdawei95@163.com.
With the continuous warming of the global climate,the frequency and extent of wildfires have increased significantly. To gain a deeper understanding of the interactions between climate change and wildfires,it is crucial to study wildfire activity patterns throughout geological history. The Permian marks a pivotal transition from an icehouse to a greenhouse climate. Although extensive research has reported evidence of the Permian wildfires,the global spatiotemporal distribution and controlling factors of the Early Permian wildfire activity remain unclear. This study presents the first discovery of abundant fossil charcoal in the Lower Permian Taiyuan and Shanxi Formations in eastern North China,indicating frequent wildfire occurrences during this period. Fossil charcoal reflectance ranges from 0.61% to 2.76%,suggesting that wildfires were predominantly surface and ground fires. Additionally,this research systematically compiled and analyzed 174 globally reported records of the Early Permian wildfire activity. The evidence includes fossil charcoal,inertinite,and pyrolytic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Spatially,the Early Permian wildfire activity was concentrated in tropical and cool temperate climate zones at mid- to high latitudes in the southern hemisphere,primarily influenced by regional climate conditions and vegetation distribution. Temporally,the frequency of the Early Permian wildfire events exhibited an initial ascending trend followed by subsequent decline,potentially influenced by variations in atmospheric CO2 concentraions and modulated by fluctuations in atmospheric O2 levels. This study provides critical insights into the global distribution and controlling factors of wildfire events during the Permian,contributing to a more comprehensive understanding of their patterns and influences.
LÜ Dawei,born in 1980,is a professor and doctoral supervisor. He is mainly engaged in teaching and scientific research on coal geology and deep time palaeoclimate. E-mail: lvdawei95@163.com.
"}, bioImg=null, bioContent=
LÜ Dawei,born in 1980,is a professor and doctoral supervisor. He is mainly engaged in teaching and scientific research on coal geology and deep time palaeoclimate. E-mail: lvdawei95@163.com.
随着全球气候变暖的影响,野火发生的频率和强度不断加剧(Jones et al., 2020)。仅2023—2024年间,全球被烧毁的土地达390万km2(Jones et al., 2024),加拿大的火灾规模达到历史最高。自1990年以来,野火已直接造成至少1.8万人受伤或死亡,并对生态系统的生物多样性、碳循环等产生了极大的负面影响(Koplitz et al., 2018;Jones et al., 2024)。因此,研究野火与不同环境因素在空间尺度和时间尺度上的关系,有助于更好地理解全球变暖环境下野火的变化趋势并制定防治措施等。
野火燃烧的产物主要包括化石木炭、惰质组(煤中的化石木炭)和热解多环芳烃(PAHs)等(Uhl et al., 2012;Baker,2022;Shao et al., 2024;Sun,2024)。其中存在于沉积物中的化石木炭被广泛认为是古野火的直接证据(Scott,2000)。已知最早的野火证据可以追溯到志留纪(Glasspool and Gastaldo, 2022)。在地质历史时期中,野火活动的变化主要受大气O2含量、点火源、气候和植被等因素影响(Baker,2022;Du et al., 2024)。
二叠纪是地球从冰室至温室的转变时期(Gastaldo et al., 1996;Montañez and Poulsen,2013;杨江海等,2021),大气O2含量明显高于现在水平(Wildman Jr et al., 2004;Berner,2009;Glasspool et al., 2010),被认为是地质历史上的一个野火高发时期(Berner and Kothavala,2001;Berner,2006;Glasspool and Scott,2010;Benicio et al., 2019)。前人对早二叠世野火的研究主要集中在单个特定区域上(Uhl et al., 2004;Guerra-Sommer et al., 2008;Jasper et al., 2008,2011;Murthy et al., 2022,2023a),而且已有数据库虽然涵盖了部分早二叠世野火数据,但野火证据类型统计不完善、野火数据有待更新(Jasper et al., 2013;Yan et al., 2016)。因此,重建更加完善的早二叠世野火数据,有助于更好地理解高O2含量下的野火规律。
早二叠世华北地区发育了大量的植物,野火频发,是全球野火研究的代表性区域(Shen et al., 2023)。为此,利用华北东部济宁地区ZK-8351钻孔下二叠统太原组和山西组沉积物中的化石木炭,通过化石木炭丰度和化石木炭反射率确定了其野火类型,具有重要的代表性意义。此外,本研究收录了早二叠世全球各地区野火活动证据,重建了早二叠世野火的时空格局。通过与大气O2含量、CO2含量、区域气候与植被变化等因素相结合,评估了不同因素对早二叠世野火活动时空演变的潜在影响,为人类正确认识全球早二叠世冰期野火发生原因提供重要的依据。
本研究利用扫描电镜观察样品的解剖结构和细胞壁的细节,发现样品的细胞壁具有明显的均质化现象(图 4)。同时可以发现纵切面可见细长的管胞,横切面上则存在典型的管胞,具有明显的植物结构特征,符合化石木炭的典型特征(Murthy et al., 2023b)。所有被研究的样品都显示出破碎的细胞壁(图 4),这是成岩过程中压实作用的标志(Murthy et al., 2022)。
本研究采集样品中的植物残骸被证实为化石木炭,其细胞壁具有均质现象,解剖特征保存完好。木炭在很大程度上能够抵抗化学和生物衰变,可以很容易地被保存在化石中(Scott,2000;Friis et al., 2006;Glasspool et al., 2006;Scott,2010),可以作为古野火发生的直接证据(Jones and Chaloner,1991;Mishra et al., 2022)。木炭保存完好的解剖细节可以提供野火燃烧植物类群的亲缘关系信息(Friis et al., 2006)。所研究的化石木炭碎片显示出解剖特征显著,如管胞壁上单列凹坑(图 4)。然而,根据这些零碎的标本不能确定特定的植物群。化石木炭富集且大小及形态差异较大,表明这一时期可能发生了不同强度的野火(Du et al., 2024)。同时基于化石木炭存在于砂岩和泥岩中,也可能是水流搬运导致化石木炭大小及形态差异较大。一般来说,在现代环境中,距离燃烧地点越远,木炭碎片的丰度和大小会减少(Blackford,2000)。大多数标本的边缘呈椭圆形和长方形,且地层中化石木炭富集,表明木炭只是被运输了较短的距离,可能直接来自沉积地附近的野火事件(Scott,2000;Marynowski et al., 2011)。同时岩心中化石木炭反复出现,表明华北东部早二叠世野火活动反复发生。
3.2 华北东部早二叠世野火类型
前人研究已经证明植物的燃烧温度与反射率呈正相关,反射率越高,燃烧温度越高(Jones and Chaloner,1991)。
自然野火不是随机发生的,而是受到植被、气候、地形的影响(Krawchuk et al., 2009)。本研究发现,已发表的早二叠世野火活动在干旱带地区分布较少,主要集中在寒温带地区和热带地区(图 6-B;图 8)。干旱气候区降水少、炎热干燥,通常不利于植物生长,可能导致野火燃料短缺。并且野火证据在干旱气候条件下更易被风化,难以保存(Hamad et al., 2012),因此干旱气候区的野火活动记录较少。野火记录主要集中在热带和寒温带气候区。在热带气候区中,环境更加温暖和潮湿,有利于植被的生长。因此,植被的繁茂发展可以产生大量的燃料,充裕的燃料更容易引发野火。雷击是地质历史时期野火的主要点火源(Cope and Chaloner,1980;Du et al., 2024)。现代研究发现,在潮湿的环境下,雷击事件更加频繁(Veraverbeke et al., 2017)。因此,在热带气候环境下,频繁的雷击和充足的燃料可能是导致该区域野火频发的主要因素。
寒温带气候的季节变化更为明显,现代研究表明,干燥和潮湿变化的环境更有利于野火发生(Lu et al., 2021)。在潮湿环境下,降水丰富,有利于植被的发育,积累了足够的燃料。当气候转换为干燥时,植被中的含水量减少,更容易被引燃,导致野火事件的发生(Yan et al., 2016)。因此,显著的季节性变化可能是导致该区域野火频发的主要因素。晚石炭世—早二叠世时期(~3.25-2.8亿年前)是地球历史上第1个大陆被维管植物覆盖的阶段。南半球高纬度地区在早二叠世开始发育舌蕨植物群,并成为优势物种(DiMichele et al., 2005)。舌蕨是一种落叶乔木(Gulbranson et al., 2014;Tewari et al., 2015),在处于南半球冬季时,掉落大量树叶,为野火的发生提供了丰富的燃料。
北半球暖温带和寒温带主要为安加拉古陆,其气候在阿瑟尔阶至亚丁斯克阶期间在亚湿润和半干旱之间波动,并在空谷阶期间变得干旱(Boucot et al., 2013)。在现代半干旱条件下,沉积物中的木炭会迅速发生分解(Skjemstad et al., 1996)。同时不能排除其他因素,如各种研究者的偏见,这些因素可能不仅主要影响早二叠世沉积物中野火证据的保存,而且还可能影响这些证据的恢复、研究和发表(Hamad et al., 2012)。虽然前文提到,早二叠世处于野火活动高发时期,但北半球暖温带和寒温带地区可能因为野火证据难以保存和研究者的偏见导致野火记录几乎没有。
地质历史时期,野火的发生主要受3种因素控制: 燃料、O2和点火源(Scott,2000;Krawchuk et al., 2009;Lü et al., 2024)。野火发生的基本条件是燃料,自然界中存在大量易燃物质,如植被残骸、地下泄漏的石油或天然气、暴露的泥炭和煤炭,其中各种类型的植物是野火燃烧最重要的燃料(Glasspool et al., 2015)。野火发生的另一个基本条件是O2。前人对以往关于大气O2含量对燃烧影响的研究指出,当大气O2含量低于15%时,燃烧不会发生; 16%的O2含量可能是植物可燃性和维持长期燃烧的最低要求; 而当O2含量至少为23%时,湿润植物将持续燃烧(Scott et al., 2014)。当大气中的O2含量较高时,野火活动增加,从而产生大量的燃烧产物。但研究时期的大气O2含量超过了30%,所以大气O2含量对野火的影响相对减少。影响野火发生的最后条件是点火源,在人类掌握火之前,自然界中的火灾主要是由岩石坠落、陨石撞击、火山事件以及最重要的闪电产生的火花引起的(Scott,2000;Du et al., 2024)。前人研究发现当大气CO2含量增加时,会导致对流层上层水蒸气含量增加,从而导致雷击概率增加(Belcher et al., 2010;Baker,2022)。由于缺乏早二叠世雷击的直接证据,因此本研究引用大气CO2含量变化作为雷暴频率的代表。同时,大气中CO2含量的变化也会导致气候的变化(Shao et al., 2024)。当大气中CO2含量增加时,全球平均气温上升,区域干旱的持续时间、强度和频率都会增加,也可能增加野火的频率。本研究整合了对早二叠世大气O2水平(Mills et al., 2023),大气CO2含量(Foster et al., 2017)和植被多样性(Cleal et al., 2014)的研究,已发表的早二叠世野火活动的汇编(图 9)。
阿瑟尔阶至亚丁斯克阶野火活动事件逐阶增加(图 9-D)。从燃料角度分析,阿瑟尔阶至亚丁斯克阶期间植物的物种数量较为稳定(图 9-A),总体增量有限,几乎可以忽略不计,且植被组成未发生显著变化,仅裸子植物增多、蕨类植物减少,对野火活动的影响较小,并不是控制因素。同时不能忽略不同气候带和不同地区条件下植被的差异性影响(Yan et al., 2016;Hua et al., 2024)。但由于缺少植物证据,作者无法对其展开研究。从点火源角度分析,阿瑟尔阶至亚丁斯克阶期间的CO2含量整体偏高且持续上升,从500×10-6上升至750×10-6(图 9-B)。作为点火源,闪电出现次数增加,这表明CO2含量变化对该阶段野火活动具有重要影响。从O2角度分析,阿瑟尔阶至亚丁斯克阶期间的O2含量持续增长近5%(图 9-C)。前文指出,O2含量越高,野火发生的概率越大,阿瑟尔阶至亚丁斯克阶的野火事件也因此增加。综上所述,阿瑟尔阶至亚丁斯克阶的野火活动增加,主要受CO2含量升高导致的雷击频率增多的控制和大气O2含量上升的影响。
由于包括潜在的研究人员偏差及保存条件限制等埋藏学所固有的复杂性,全球范围内诸多地区早二叠世古野火证据存在缺失的可能性无法排除(Brown et al., 2012;Du et al., 2024)。在此背景下,本研究对华北东部地区古野火记录的确证,为全球古野火数据库补充了一个关键的区域性数据点。华北东部野火事件作为全球野火活动的重要组成部分,符合全球野火集中于热带与寒温带的规律,凸显了区域气候(温暖湿润)对燃料积累的关键作用。这不仅丰富了该地质时期野火活动的区域认知,也凸显了在全球尺度上系统性地识别和整合古野火证据的必要性。因此,未来亟需在更多地区开展更深入、更广泛的研究,以期构建更为全面和可靠的全球古野火演化图景。
[LüD W, XuJ C, ZhangZ H, GaoJ, DuW X, ZhangA C, WangD D. 2024. Distribution and controlling factors of the Carboniferous global wildfies. Acta Geologica Sinica, 98(6): 1893-1903 ]
[WangD D, HuH C, MaoQ, LüD W. 2024. Genesis and palaeoenviromental significance of siderite nodules in the Taiyuan Formation,Zibo area of Shandong Province,China. Journal of Palaeogeography(Chinese Edition), 26(5): 1185-1200 ]
[YangJ H, WangY, LiuJ, MaR, DuY S, LiuC, YuW C. 2021. Early Permian mudrock deposits and deep-time land surface temperature reconstruction,southern North China. Acta Sedimentologica Sinica, 39(3): 540-549 ]
[7]
BakerS J. 2022. Fossil evidence that increased wildfire activity occurs in tandem with periods of global warming in Earth’s past. Earth-Science Reviews,224: 103871.
[8]
BelcherC M, YearsleyJ M, HaddenR M, McElwainJ C, ReinG. 2010. Baseline intrinsic flammability of Earth’s ecosystems estimated from paleoatmospheric oxygen over the past 350 million years. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 107(52): 22448-22453.
[9]
BenicioJ R W, JasperA, SpiekermannR, GaravagliaL, Pires-OliveiraE F, MachadoN T G, UhlD. 2019. Recurrent palaeo-wildfires in a Cisuralian coal seam: a palaeobotanical view on high-inertinite coals from the Lower Permian of the Paraná Basin, Brazil. PloS One, 14(3): e0213854.
[10]
BernerR A. 2006. GEOCARBSULF: a combined model for Phanerozoic atmospheric O2 and CO2. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 70(23): 5653-5664.
[11]
BernerR A. 2009. Phanerozoic atmospheric oxygen: new results using the GEOCARBSULF model. American Journal of Science, 309(7): 603-606.
[12]
BernerR A, KothavalaZ. 2001. GEOCARB Ⅲ: a revised model of atmospheric CO2 over Phanerozoic time. American Journal of Science, 301(2): 182-204.
[13]
BlackfordJ J. 2000. Charcoal fragments in surface samples following a fire and the implications for interpretation of subfossil charcoal data. Palaeogeography,Palaeoclimatology,Palaeoecology, 164(1-4): 33-42.
[14]
BoucotA J, XuC, ScoteseC R, MorleyR J. 2013. Phanerozoic paleoclimate: an atlas of lithologic indicators of climate. SEPM(Society for Sedimentary Geology), Tulsa.
[15]
BrownS A, ScottA C, GlasspoolI J, CollinsonM E. 2012. Cretaceous wildfires and their impact on the Earth system. Cretaceous Research,36: 162-190.
[16]
ClealC J, Cascales-MiñanaB. 2014. Composition and dynamics of the great Phanerozoic evolutionary floras. Lethaia, 47(4): 469-484.
[17]
CopeM J, ChalonerW G. 1980. Fossil charcoal as evidence of past atmospheric composition. Nature, 283(5748): 647-649.
[18]
DiMicheleW A, GastaldoR A, PfefferkornH W. 2005. Plant biodiversity partitioning in the Late Carboniferous and Early Permian and its implications for ecosystem assembly. Proceedings of the California Academy of Sciences,56: 32-49.
[19]
DuW X, LüD W, ZhangZ H, LuM, UhlD, RajiM, WangL J, ZhangA C, SunY Z, WangT T. 2024. Temporal and spatial evolution of wildfires during the Jurassic: from regional to global scale. Palaeogeography,Palaeoclimatology,Palaeoecology,650: 112359.
[20]
FosterG L, RoyerD L, LuntD J. 2017. Future climate forcing potentially without precedent in the last 420 million years. Nature Communications, 8(1): 14845.
[21]
FriisE M, PedersenK R, CraneP R. 2006. Cretaceous angiosperm flowers: innovation and evolution in plant reproduction. Palaeogeography,Palaeoclimatology,Palaeoecology, 232(2-4): 251-293.
[22]
GastaldoR A, DiMicheleW A, PfefferkornH W. 1996. Out of the icehouse into the greenhouse: a late Paleozoic analogue for modern global vegetational change. Gas Today,6: 1-7.
[23]
GlasspoolI J, ScottA C. 2010. Phanerozoic concentrations of atmospheric oxygen reconstructed from sedimentary charcoal. Nature Geoscience, 3(9): 627-630.
[24]
GlasspoolI J, GastaldoR A. 2022. Silurian wildfire proxies and atmospheric oxygen. Geology, 50(9): 1048-1052.
[25]
GlasspoolI J, EdwardsD, AxeL. 2006. Charcoal in the Early Devonian: a wildfire-derived Konservat-Lagerstätte. Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology, 142(3-4): 131-136.
[26]
Guerra-SommerM, Cazzulo-KlepzigM, JasperA, KalkreuthW, MenegatR, BarbozaE G. 2008. Paleoecological patterns at the coal-roof shale transition in an outcrop of the Permian Brazilian Gondwana. Revista Brasileira de Paleontologia, 11(1): 11-26.
[27]
GlasspoolI J, ScottA C, WalthamD, ProninaN, ShaoL Y. 2015. The impact of fire on the Late Paleozoic Earth system. Frontiers in Plant Science,6: 756.
[28]
GulbransonE L, RybergP E, DecombeixA L, TaylorE L, TaylorT N, IsbellJ L. 2014. Leaf habit of Late Permian Glossopteris trees from high-palaeolatitude forests. Journal of the Geological Society, 171(4): 493-507.
[29]
HamadA M B A, JasperA, UhlD. 2012. The record of Triassic charcoal and other evidence for palaeo-wildfires: signal for atmospheric oxygen levels,taphonomic biases or lack of fuel? International Journal of Coal Geology,96: 60-71.
[30]
HuaF H, ShaoL Y, WangX T, JonesT P, ZhangT C, BondD P G, YanZ M, HiltonJ. 2024. The impact of frequent wildfires during the Permian-Triassic transition: floral change and terrestrial crisis in southwestern China. Palaeogeography,Palaeoclimatology,Palaeoecology,641: 112129.
[31]
HuangB C, YanY G, PiperJ D A, ZhangD H, YiZ, YuS, ZhouT H. 2018. Paleomagnetic constraints on the paleogeography of the East Asian blocks during Late Paleozoic and Early Mesozoic times. Earth-Science Reviews,186: 8-36.
[32]
ICCP. 2001. The new inertinite classification(ICCP system 1994). Fuel, 80: 459-471.
[33]
JasperA, UhlD, Guerra-SommerM, MosbruggerV. 2008. Palaeobotanical evidence of wildfires in the Late Paleozoic of South America-Early Permian,rio Bonito Formation,Paraná basin,Rio Grande do Sul,Brazil. Journal of South American Earth Sciences, 26(4): 435-444.
[34]
JonesT P. 1994. New morphological and chemical evidence supporting a wildfire origin for fusain from comparisons with modern charcoal. Special Papers in Palaeontology,49: 113-123.
[35]
JonesT P. 1997. Fusain in Late Jurassic sediments from the Witch Ground Graben,North Sea,UK. Inst voor Toegepaste Geowetenschappen TNO,58: 93-103.
[36]
JonesT P, ChalonerW G. 1991. Fossil charcoal,its recognition and palaeoatmospheric significance. Palaeogeography,Palaeoclimatology,Palaeoecology, 97(1-2): 39-50.
[37]
JasperA, UhlD, Guerra-SommerM, AbuHamad A, MachadoN T G. 2011. Charcoal remains from a tonstein layer in the Faxinal Coalfield,Lower Permian,southern Paraná Basin,Brazil. Anais da Academia Brasileira de Ciências,83: 471-481.
[38]
JasperA, Guerra-SommerM, AbuHamad A M B, BamfordM, Bernardes-de-OliveiraM E C, TewariR, UhlD. 2013. The burning of Gondwana: Permian fires on the southern continent: a palaeobotanical approach. Gondwana Research, 24(1): 148-160.
[39]
JonesM W, SmithA J P, BettsR, CanadellJ G, PrenticeI C, Le QuéréC. 2020. Climate Change Increases the Risk of Wildfires: January 2020. Gondwana Research,
[40]
JonesM W, KelleyD I, BurtonC A, DiGiuseppe F, BarbosaM L F, BramblebyE, HartleyA J, LombardiA, MataveliG, McNortonJ R. 2024. State of wildfires 2023-2024. Earth System Science Data, 16(8): 3601-3685.
[41]
KoplitzS N, NolteC G, PouliotG A, VukovichJ M, BeidlerJ. 2018. Influence of uncertainties in burned area estimates on modeled wildland fire PM2.5 and ozone pollution in the contiguous US. Atmospheric Environment,191: 328-339.
[42]
KrawchukM A, MoritzM A, ParisienM A, VanDorn J, HayhoeK. 2009. Global pyrogeography: the current and future distribution of wildfire. PloS One, 4(4): e5102.
[43]
LiuB J, ZhaoC L, MaJ L, SunY Z, PüttmannW. 2018. The origin of pale and dark layers in Pliocene lignite deposits from Yunnan Province,Southwest China: based on coal petrological and organic geochemical analyses. International Journal of Coal Geology,195: 172-188.
[44]
LuM, IkejiriT, LuY H. 2021. A synthesis of the Devonian wildfire record: implications for paleogeography,fossil flora,and paleoclimate. Palaeogeography,Palaeoclimatology,Palaeoecology,571: 110321.
[45]
LüD W, ChenJ T. 2014. Depositional environments and sequence stratigraphy of the Late Carboniferous-Early Permian coal-bearing successions(Shandong Province,China): sequence development in an epicontinental basin. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences,79: 16-30.
[46]
LüD W, DuW X, ZhangZ H, GaoY, WangT T, XuJ C, ZhangA C, WangC S. 2024. A synthesis of the Cretaceous wildfire record related to atmospheric oxygen levels? Journal of Palaeogeography, 13(1): 149-164.
[47]
MarynowskiL, ScottA C, ZatońM, ParentH, GarridoA C. 2011. First multi-proxy record of Jurassic wildfires from Gondwana: evidence from the Middle Jurassic of the Neuquén Basin, Argentina. Palaeogeography,Palaeoclimatology,Palaeoecology, 299(1-2): 129-136.
[48]
MillsB J W, KrauseA J, JarvisI, CramerB D. 2023. Evolution of atmospheric O2 through the Phanerozoic,revisited. Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences, 51(1): 253-276.
[49]
MishraD P, SinghV P, SaxenaA, UhlD, MurthyS, PandeyB, KumarR. 2022. Palaeoecology and depositional setting of an Early Permian(Artinskian)mire based on a multi-proxy study at the Jagannath coal mine(Talcher Coalfield),Mahanadi Basin,India. Palaeogeography,Palaeoclimatology,Palaeoecology,601: 111124.
[50]
MontañezI P, PoulsenC J. 2013. The Late Paleozoic ice age: an evolving paradigm. Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences, 41(1): 629-656.
[51]
MurthyS, UhlD, JasperA, SarateO S, MishraD P. 2022. New evidence for palaeo-wildfire in the Early Permian(Artinskian)of Gondwana from Wardha Valley Coalfield,India. Journal of the Geological Society of India, 98(3): 395-401.
[52]
MurthyS, AgnihotriD, UhlD, JasperA, SinghR K. 2023a. Palaeoenvironmental and stratigraphical implications of the palynoflora and macro-charcoal from the early Permian of the Chuperbhita Coalfield,Rajmahal Basin,Jharkhand,India. Journal of Palaeosciences, 72(2): 141-151.
[53]
MurthyS, SaxenaA, KhnagarR, PillaiS S K, UhlD, SinghV P, hGupta S, BorkarN. 2023b. Palynofloristics and wildfire evidence from Permian deposits of the Satpura Gondwana Basin, India: a multiproxy approach. Historical Biology: 1-22.
[54]
ScoteseC R. 2014. Atlas of Permo-Carboniferous Paleogeographic Maps(Mollweide Projection),Maps 53-64,Volumes 4. The Late Paleozoic,PALEOMAP Atlas for ArcGIS. PALEOMAP Project,Evanston,IL.
[55]
ScottA C. 2000. The Pre-Quaternary history of fire. Palaeogeography,Palaeoclimatology,Palaeoecology, 164(1-4): 281-329.
[56]
ScottA C. 2010. Charcoal recognition,taphonomy and uses in palaeoenvironmental analysis. Palaeogeography,Palaeoclimatology,Palaeoecology, 291(1-2): 11-39.
[57]
ScottA C, BowmanD M J S, BondW J, PyneS J, AlexanderM E. 2014. Fire on earth: an introduction. Fire Ecology, DOI: 10.5860/choice.52-0860.
[58]
ShaoL Y, ZhouJ M, JonesT P, HuaF H, XuX T, YanZ M, HouH H, WangD D, LuJ. 2024. Inertinite in coal and its geoenvironmental significance: insights from AI and big data analysis. Science China Earth Sciences: 1-23.
[59]
ShenW C, ZhaoQ J, UhlD, WangJ, SunY Z. 2023. Wildfire activity and impacts on palaeoenvironments during the late Paleozoic Ice Age: new data from the North China Basin. Palaeogeography,Palaeoclimatology,Palaeoecology,629: 111781.
[60]
SkjemstadJ O, ClarkeP, TaylorJ A, OadesJ M, McClureS G. 1996. The chemistry and nature of protected carbon in soil. Soil Research, 34(2): 251-271.
[61]
SunY Z. 2024. Review and update on the applications of inertinite macerals in coal geology,paleoclimatology,and paleoecology. Palaeoworld, 162(2): 193-200.
[62]
TewariR, ChatterjeeS, AgnihotriD, PanditaS K. 2015. Glossopteris flora in the Permian Weller Formation of Allan Hills,South Victoria Land,Antarctica: implications for paleogeography,paleoclimatology,and biostratigraphic correlation. Gondwana Research, 28(3): 905-932.
[63]
UhlD, LausbergS, NollR, StapfK R G. 2004. Wildfires in the late palaeozoic of central Europe: an overview of the rotliegend(upper Carboniferous-lower Permian)of the Saar-Nahe Basin(SW-Germany). Palaeogeography,Palaeoclimatology,Palaeoecology, 207(1-2): 23-35.
[64]
UhlD, ButzmannR, FischerT C, MellerB, KustatscherE. 2012. Wildfires in the Late Palaeozoic and Mesozoic of the Southern Alps-the late Permian of the Bletterbach-Butterloch area(northern Italy). Rivista Italiana di Paleontologia e Stratigrafia, 118(2): 223-233.
[65]
VeraverbekeS, RogersB M, GouldenM L, JandtR R, MillerC E, WigginsE B, RandersonJ T. 2017. Lightning as a major driver of recent large fire years in North American boreal forests. Nature Climate Change, 7(7): 529-534.
[66]
WildmanJr R A, HickeyL J, DickinsonM B, BernerR A, RobinsonJ M, DietrichM, EssenhighR H, WildmanC B. 2004. Burning of forest materials under late Paleozoic high atmospheric oxygen levels. Geology, 32(5): 457-460.
[67]
YanM X, WanM L, HeX Z, HouX D, WangJ. 2016. First report of Cisuralian(early Permian)charcoal layers within a coal bed from Baode,North China with reference to global wildfire distribution. Palaeogeography,Palaeoclimatology,Palaeoecology,459: 394-408.
[68]
ZhouJ M, ShaoL Y, JonesT P, HuangY Y, ChenM, HouH H, LuJ, HiltonJ'. 2024. Mechanisms of inertinite enrichment in Jurassic coals: insights from a big data-driven review. Earth-Science Reviews: 104889.