固废基可控低强度材料性能的研究进展

张海虎 ,  钱劲松

吉林大学学报(工学版) ›› 2026, Vol. 56 ›› Issue (03) : 621 -638.

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吉林大学学报(工学版) ›› 2026, Vol. 56 ›› Issue (03) : 621 -638. DOI: 10.13229/j.cnki.jdxbgxb.20241305
综述

固废基可控低强度材料性能的研究进展

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Advances in properties of solid wastebased controlled low strength material:a review

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摘要

重点论述了不同固废对可控低强度材料(CLSM)工作性能、力学性能和耐久性的影响及其机制,系统总结了各类强度预测模型,概述了无水泥固废基CLSM的强度形成机理和耐久性。最后,给出未来研究建议与展望:固废基CLSM兼具低碳、高流态与强度可控优势,是回填工程绿色升级的核心方向;需建立固废特性-性能耦合数据库,以机器学习快速优化配比,并系统提升其耐久性与重金属长期安全性。

Abstract

This paper focused on the effects of different solid wastes on the workability, mechanical properties, and durability of controlled low strength material(CLSM) as well as mechanisms. Various strength prediction models were systematically summarized. In addition, the strength formation mechanism and durability of cementless solid waste-based CLSM were outlined. In conclusion, future research recommendations and perspectives were given. Waste-based CLSM, offering low-carbon, highly flowable and tunable-strength advantages, is the key to greening backfill projects; establishing a waste-property/performance database, machine-learning-aided mix optimization, and systematic upgrades of durability and long-term heavy-metal safety are imperative.

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关键词

可控低强度材料 / 固体废弃物 / 工程性能 / 强度预测 / 耐久性

Key words

controlled low strength material / solid waste / engineering properties / strength prediction / durability

引用本文

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张海虎,钱劲松. 固废基可控低强度材料性能的研究进展[J]. 吉林大学学报(工学版), 2026, 56(03): 621-638 DOI:10.13229/j.cnki.jdxbgxb.20241305

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0 引 言

工业化和城市化进程的推进导致固体废弃物(简称固废)的产生量显著增加。2015年,我国已是五大经济体中固废产量最高的国家1。2019年,我国工业固废产生量约为35.43亿吨,全国大、中城市一般工业固废产生量高达13.8亿吨23。2021年,大宗固废累积总量已达约600亿吨,新增产量为36亿吨/年4。大量的固废不仅增加了处理成本,而且占据土地资源,间接带来土壤、水、空气污染5-7。此外,固废处置产生的温室气体排放量占全球人为温室气体排放总量的2%~5%8,已成为全球主要城市面临的一个重大环境问题910。随着我国生态文明建设的推进,固废资源化利用已成为可持续发展的重要途径11

根据美国混凝土协会(American Concrete Institute,ACI)的定义,可控低强度材料(Controlled low strength material, CLSM) 是一种具有自我充填性、28 d无侧限抗压强度不超过8.3 MPa的低强度水泥基回填材料12。CLSM通常由水泥(5%~10%)、辅助胶凝材料(粉煤灰,10%~15%)、细骨料(砂,80%~85%)和水(250~400 L/m3)组成13。作为一种新型的回填材料,CLSM最突出的特点是强度可控、自流平、自填充与自密实,能有效降低人工成本和减少对施工设备的需求14,可应用于管道工程、路基工程及回填工程等15-19。具有高导热的CLSM由于其良好的流动性和低收缩率,也可用作地热系统的传热介质2021。由于CLSM强度要求不高,材料体系包容性强,原材料选择范围广,可回收利用多种低品质固废,如水泥窑灰、铸造砂、垃圾焚烧底灰、脱水污泥等22-26。利用固废开发CLSM在成本效益高、环境友好方面潜力巨大,可将成本降低21%~62%27-29,可持续系数高达4.3530。近年来,为进一步降低传统CLSM生产对自然资源的消耗,使用各种固废替代水泥或砂制备CLSM已成为研究的热点。在CLSM中掺入不同类型的固废会对CLSM的工程性能产生不同的影响,如何实现固废基CLSM性能的科学调控仍是研究的关键点。本文旨在系统综述利用固废制备CLSM的研究现状,分析不同固废在CLSM中的应用效果,探讨主要影响因素和优化方法,为固废基CLSM配合比设计提供参考。

1 固废基CLSM的工作性能

1.1 不同固废对流动性的影响

目前,用于制备CLSM的固废来源及其主要特性如表1所示。固废掺入的形式分为取代水泥和天然骨料两类,不同固废对CLSM流动性的影响如表2所示。

当掺量增加时,大部分固废会降低CLSM的流动性。提高或降低流动性的原因主要与固废的物理特性(如颗粒形态与大小、比表面积、吸水性)和化学特性(反应活性)有关。水泥窑灰颗粒、循环流化床燃烧灰的棱角状;再生混凝土骨料、废水处理污泥不规则的颗粒形态;钢渣、造纸污泥、再生混凝土骨料的吸水性;赤泥、建筑渣土、人造室内石污泥较大的比表面积增加表面吸附水量,都会导致颗粒间摩擦力增大、自由水量降低、黏附性增强,从而减弱流动性。然而,粒化高炉矿渣、脱硫矿渣、气化渣、钢渣粉、油砂废料的细颗粒较多,具有一定的物理填充效应,可减少内部空隙的尺寸和体积,释放颗粒间空隙中的水分,使体系中的自由水量增加,从而提高流动性。废橡胶颗粒的疏水性使一部分未被颗粒吸收的水充当润滑剂;废玻璃砂表面相对光滑,能减少颗粒间内摩擦起一定的润滑作用,均有利于流动性。同时,固废的反应活性和化学成分也影响流动性。粒化高炉矿渣水化反应的缓慢性延迟钙矾石的形成,以及尾矿中MgO含量的增加能降低反应速率,使浆体在初期阶段保持较低的黏度,从而提升流动性31;炉底灰具有一定的火山灰反应活性,进一步消耗了体系内的水;酸性矿井排水石灰污泥是一种石灰基固废,当与粉煤灰结合时,表现出类似水泥的自硬化特性,促进了钙矾石的形成,均会降低浆体的流动与扩散。除增大水胶比外,固废基CLSM的流动性可通过添加0.4%~0.75%聚羧酸酯型高效减水剂进行改善3233

1.2 不同固废对泌水性的影响

不同固废对CLSM泌水性的影响如表3所示。固废的吸水性、颗粒形态与大小、化学特性对CLSM的泌水性起主导作用,通常具有较强吸水性的固废均会降低泌水性。气化渣、钢渣粉的细颗粒较多,其填充效应会增加自由水含量,随着掺量的增加导致自由水含量超过水泥水化所需水量,进而增加泌水量,如图1所示。由于废橡胶颗粒的疏水性,取代砂时会使泌水性增强,而当取代率达到20%时,橡胶颗粒的不规则表面延迟了颗粒沉积有助于减缓水分泌出。炉底灰的火山灰反应消耗自由水;水泥窑灰具与水泥类似的成分,其水化胶结特性亦会消耗部分自由水,这表明固废的化学反应特性在泌水性控制中起一定的积极作用。如图2所示,流动性与泌水性之间具有良好的线性关系,提高流动性的固废通常会增大泌水性。

1.3 不同固废对凝结时间的影响

不同固废对CLSM凝结时间的影响如表4所示。固废材料的物理特性,如孔隙率、吸水性和颗粒形态,对凝结时间有显著影响。水泥窑灰、城市生活垃圾焚烧底灰、再生混凝土骨料、建筑渣土、废水处理污泥由于其高孔隙率和吸水性,吸收大量水分,从而减缓硬化进程。城市生活垃圾焚烧底灰含有较多未焚化的有机物以及硫酸盐,对水泥水化的抑制也会进一步延缓凝结4554;建筑渣土中的细颗粒会被吸附到水化产物表面形成包裹屏障,阻碍进一步水化49。同时,固废材料的化学活性和化学成分亦影响凝结时间。当采用反应活性低的固废取代水泥会延长凝结时间,而采用具有反应活性的固废取代天然砂时有助于缩短凝结时间,如图3所示。粒化高炉矿渣的弱水化特性延迟早期钙矾石的形成;钢渣粉的低火山灰活性,对水泥的早期水化有一定的延缓作用,进而减缓凝结硬化。钢渣有含量较低的硅酸二钙和硅酸三钙,具有一定的火山灰反应活性40;赤泥含有大量的Al2O3和Na2O与水反应,释放大量的Al3+和OH-,形成高碱性环境,有利于促进水泥水化43;循环流化床燃烧灰中较高的石膏含量促进钙矾石的形成,当大量钙矾石快速形成时,铝酸盐相会缩短凝结时间44。此外,材料的细度和颗粒形态也会影响浆体的流变特性进而影响凝结过程。当水泥窑灰中游离CaO含量>20.6%、细度>4 000 cm2/g时可缩短初凝时间至10~14 h55;而废橡胶颗粒、废玻璃砂的颗粒形态可能不利于颗粒间的黏结,导致结构较为疏松,凝结时间有所延长。对凝结时间要求严格的工况,可外掺钙基促凝剂(CaCl2)、三乙醇胺或用碱性溶液(NaOH和Na2SiO3)活化粉煤灰缩短硬化时间5657

2 固废基CLSM的力学性能

2.1 不同固废对无侧限抗压强度的影响

不同固废对CLSM无侧限抗压强度(UCS)的影响如表5所示。不同类型固废对UCS的影响主要取决于其化学成分、物理特性及其掺入比例。化学成分决定材料的反应潜力,物理特性影响材料的密实度和孔隙结构,掺入比例则是调控这些效应的关键参数。粒化高炉矿渣和钢渣粉的反应活性低,取代水泥后导致水灰比增大,UCS降低;而当外掺20%~40%粒化高炉矿渣时,其含有活性硅和活性铝,能促进水化硅酸钙(C-S-H)和水化硅铝酸钙(C-A-S-H)的生成,增强颗粒间的胶结性,进而提高UCS5859;当钢渣粉的取代率≤15%时,随着龄期的增加,钢渣粉水化反应更加充分,有利于强度的发展39。气化渣、水泥窑灰、钢渣、炉底灰、循环流化床燃烧灰、再生混凝土骨料、酸性矿井排水石灰污泥等具有一定的反应活性,用作细骨料时有助于提高UCS。物理特性上,钢渣和城市垃圾焚烧底灰因孔隙率高,导致材料密实度降低,从而减弱UCS;再生混凝土骨料虽然在初期能够提升强度,但长期强度因内部孔隙结构的缺陷而降低46。铜渣的比重大于天然砂的比重,导致骨料间的摩擦阻力降低;废橡胶颗粒、废玻璃砂的颗粒形态降低骨料间的黏结强度,均导致UCS降低;油砂废料中细粒度的填充效应和润滑作用能降低用水量,进而降低水灰比;人造室内石污泥中微小颗粒的填充效应能降低孔隙率和有害孔隙数量,均会提高UCS。固废的掺量也影响强度的发展趋势。如图4所示,当钢渣取代率≤10%时,UCS最大能提高40%,随着取代率的增加,由于钢渣的固有孔隙,导致体系孔隙率增加,UCS呈下降趋势40。同样,当赤泥取代率≤15%时,UCS随赤泥含量呈线性增大,而当赤泥取代率超过15%时,UCS随赤泥含量呈线性降低43。这是因为赤泥含有较高的Al2O3、Na2O和CaO,释放大量的OH-,激发粉煤灰的火山灰反应生成C-S-H凝胶;同时,反应生成的Ca(OH)2与Al2O3生成CaAl2O4,增强UCS。当赤泥取代率进一步增加时会导致体系中水泥含量不足,UCS随之降低。

此外,固废的细度也影响UCS。用细度模数为2.05的钢渣取代天然砂时,UCS随取代率的增加而增大,且明显大于掺细度模数为2.7钢渣的强度。利用球磨降低钢渣的细度模数一方面能降低钢渣的固有孔隙率,另一方面能增加比表面积,提高水解反应能力,生成更多的C-S-H凝胶填充内部孔隙4060。铜渣也表现出类似的性质,只有达到一定细度(粒径<30 μm)时才能充分水化,粒径>60 μm的铜渣颗粒表现出化学惰性,对强度无积极影响,而粒径<10 μm时能增加反应接触面积,加快水化速度,提高CLSM的早期强度61

2.2 固废基CLSM抗压强度预测

预测CLSM的强度有助于评价其工程性能,减少实验的次数和规模,快速优化配合比设计。固废基CLSM抗压强度预测主要是基于多元线性回归(MLR)、人工神经网络(ANN)、深度神经网络(DNN)、遗传算法(GA)和支持向量回归(SVR)等建立模型方程5262-64

2.2.1 基于多元线性回归的预测模型

由于CLSM抗压强度与龄期呈ft)=a·In(t)±b的对数关系(R2>0.93)65,基于多元线性回归思想,利用UCS与In(t)良好的线性相关,可建立UCS与龄期、配合比之间的预测方程,如式(1)所示62。该预测方程的R2=0.855,但在预测早期强度时的误差较大,可能导致预测值为负值;同时,很难根据回归系数确定主要影响因素,从而限制其适用性63。如式(2)所示66的预测模型可直观解释骨料、粉煤灰类型对UCS的影响。该模型的关键点在于常数k的赋值,局限于要求材料类型相同以保证模型的准确性。

UCS=-12.26+0.1ln(t)+0.1B-
             0.7FA-24.3Ws+2.16Wb

式中:UCS为无侧限抗压强度,MPa;t为龄期,d;B为胶凝材料含量,kg/m3;FA为粉煤灰取代水泥的百分比;Ws为水固比;Wb为水胶比。

UCS(t)=b0(t)·(kagg. type)b1(t)·(kfly ash type)b2(t)·                      (w/c)b3(t)·(kfly ash content)b4(t)b0(t)=-0.000 7t2+0.13t-0.76b1(t)=-0.000 1t2+0.013t+0.42b2(t)=-0.000 08t2+0.015t+0.094b3(t)=-0.003t-1.03b4(t)=0.75-0.018t(t30 d)0.22(t>30 d)

式中:kagg.type为细骨料类型常数,k河沙=1、k铸造砂=0.2、k炉底灰=1;kfly ash type为粉煤灰类型常数,kc类粉煤灰=2.2、kF类粉煤灰 =1、k高碳粉煤灰=0.75;kfly ash content为粉煤灰掺量;w/c为水灰比。

2.2.2 基于神经网络的预测模型

基于人工神经网络的预测模型是采用多层感知器(MLP),以S型函数进行多元非线性回归。如图5(a)所示,Huang等62采用这种方法得到的预测模型的R2≥0.969。与ANN相比,DNN可结合过采样算法(SMOTE或CTGAN)扩大数据量,有效解决数据量不足的问题,进一步提高模型的泛化能力和预测精度。同时,通过随机森林算法评估输入参数的重要性,可识别出对CLSM性能影响最大的关键组分,从而简化模型并提高预测效率。

图5(b)所示,Han等63建立了以成分含量预测CLSM性能的DNN模型,该模型不仅可精确预测12 h和7 d的抗压强度(R2≥0.98),还可用于预测流动性(R2=0.682)。

2.2.3 基于遗传算法(GA)的预测模型

基于机器学习遗传算法(GA)是采用物理系统识别遗传编程工具箱(GPTIPS)来预测强度。Shin等52基于GA以水泥、粉煤灰、污泥、水为输入变量,建立UCS预测模型方程,如式(3)所示。该预测模型的R2=0.864,具有较高的预测精度。但遗传算法的性能受算法参数(如种群大小、交叉率、变异率等)的影响较大,需要合适的参数设置以避免陷入局部最优,且基于遗传算法的模型可解释性较弱,难以直观地理解模型的决策过程。

UCS=cos(S+exp(S))+1.7sin(S+sin(S))-
       0.05sin(t)-0.15Wcos(S)-0.2

式中:S为污泥与砂的质量比;W为水胶比。

2.2.4 基于支持向量回归的预测模型

支持向量回归是一种基于支持向量机(SVM)的回归方法,用于预测连续的数值变量,对噪声和异常值具有较好的鲁棒性。Zhao等64以配合比(水泥、粉煤灰、砂、建筑渣土的百分比含量,水胶比,是否添加超塑化剂(Superplasticizers, SP))和龄期为输入参数,开发了粒子群优化(PSO)-SVR、遗传算法(GA)-SVR和网格搜索(GS)-SVR 3种模型优化超参数以获得最佳的预测结果。其中,GA-SVR模型的强度预测精度最优(R2=0.934),该模型也能精准预测流动性(R2=0.948)。结合SHAP解释性工具,SVR模型能识别出对CLSM性能有决定性作用的因素,便于针对性地调整配合比,有助于增强模型可信度。此外,SVR模型预测UCS的精度高于ANN模型的精度67

2.3 固废基CLSM的劈裂抗拉强度

固废基CLSM的抗压强度和劈裂抗拉强度之间具有良好的线性关系,如式(4)所示50。劈裂抗拉强度为抗压强度的7%~17%,与水泥混凝土的正常范围(8%~14%)非常接近12,优于颗粒状材料68。掺入提高抗压强度的固废有利于提高CLSM的劈裂抗拉强度,如炉底灰42。当固废基CLSM应用于路面基层时,为克服其抗拉强度低的缺点,可通过添加纤维进行改善6970

ft=0.173 3fc-57.276,R2=0.985 7

式中:ft为劈裂抗拉强度,kPa;fc为抗压强度,kPa。

2.4 固废基CLSM的弹性/回弹模量

固废基CLSM的弹性/回弹模量随抗压强度的增加而增加,与普通混凝土相似。如图6所示,为不同钢渣粉含量下CLSM的弹性模量。随着钢渣粉取代比例的增加,CLSM的弹性模量分别在0.47~0.27 GPa和1.28~0.87 GPa范围内降低,30%的取代比例导致弹性模量急剧下降32%~41%38。UCS与动弹性模量之间具有较好的幂函数关系71

当采用具有反应活性的固废取代砂(如炉底灰)时,随着炉底灰的火山灰活性的增加,CLSM的弹性模量显著增加,表现出更接近水泥砂浆的脆性破坏特征42。CLSM的弹性模量亦受粉煤灰中SiO2+Al2O3含量以及细度影响,随SiO2+Al2O3含量的增加而增大,随细度的减小而降低72。Qian等49研究了不同应力条件下掺建筑渣土CLSM的回弹模量(MR),发现MR随水泥掺量的增加而增大,随建筑渣土取代比例的增加而减小;当偏应力与围压均为30 kPa、建筑渣土取代比例为70%时CLSM的MR最低可达180 MPa,高于普通压实土。以池灰为细骨料的CLSM的MR在不同的围压和偏应力为50~305 MPa,均高于压实后的池灰73。固废基CLSM的MR随UCS呈幂函数增大,如式(5)所示7475

MR=768.28(UCS)0.06,  R2=0.98

式中:MR为回弹模量,MPa。

3 固废基CLSM的耐久性

3.1 固废基CLSM的抗干湿/冻融循环性能

干湿循环中的水分蒸发以及冻融循环产生的冻胀应力,导致材料内部产生微裂纹和孔隙增大,进而削弱材料的整体强度。随着干湿/冻融循环次数的增加,微裂纹逐渐积累和扩展,固废基CLSM将产生损伤,如图7所示4976其中C8表示水泥含量8%;S70表示建筑渣土含量70%,以此类推。当干湿循环次数达10次时,用建筑渣土全部取代天然砂后的CLSM强度损失率为28%~58%;当冻融循环次数达10次时,由于建筑渣土的较高吸水性和冻胀性,强度损失率为46%~76%。可见,冻融循环比干湿循环对强度的损伤更大。与冻融循环强度变化趋势不同的是,当水泥含量≥10%时,干湿循环中的高温干燥会进一步促进水泥水化和粉煤灰的火山灰反应,干湿循环初期强度有所发展。通过增加粉煤灰的外掺量(10%~20%),利用粉煤灰的填充效应和火山灰效应可减缓强度损失速率。CLSM的初始强度对抗干湿/冻融循环性能起主要作用。随着水泥掺量的增加,初始抗压强度增高,CLSM的抗干湿/冻融性能越好。干湿循环下CLSM的初始强度与强度损失率呈二次函数关系,冻融循环下CLSM的初始强度与强度损失率呈线性关系76。通过添加外掺剂增加CLSM 的强度和内部结构密实度能有效提高抗干湿/冻融循环性能。例如外掺0.3%的玻璃纤维可填充内部孔隙有效降低孔隙率,显著增强CLSM的抗压强度和劈裂抗拉强度69;外掺0.3%的减水剂+0.5%的膨润土不仅能增强CLSM的抗压强度,而且能利用膨润土吸水膨胀、失水收缩的性质提高结构稳定性76

3.2 固废基CLSM的抗硫酸盐侵蚀性能

固废基CLSM经质量浓度为50 g/L的Na2SO4溶液干湿循环后,强度降低,表面易于裂纹扩展;同时Na2SO4促使单硫型水化硫铝酸钙(AFm)转为膨胀性钙矾石(AFt)以及在表面的结晶屈服促进裂缝的增长,诱发表面部分崩解,从而造成质量损失3577。如图8所示,含脱硫矿渣和城市生活垃圾焚烧底灰的CLSM经硫酸盐溶液干湿循环后,质量损失率不断增加,这表明掺入固废后会降低CLSM的抗硫酸盐侵蚀性能,且随着固废掺量的增加不断恶化。当脱硫矿渣取代率>20%、城市生活垃圾焚烧底灰取代率>50%后,抗硫酸盐侵蚀性能显著降低。城市生活垃圾焚烧底灰的高吸水性和孔隙率易使水成为SO42-侵入CLSM的介质45;而用废橡胶颗粒取代天然砂后,随着掺量的增加,质量损失率呈下降趋势,这说明掺入废橡胶颗粒一定程度上改善了CLSM的抗硫酸盐侵蚀性能78。掺入粉煤灰亦可降低CLSM的孔隙率和渗透性,提高CLSM的化学侵蚀抵抗力22

3.3 固废基CLSM的干缩性能

CLSM的最终线性收缩率一般为0.02%~ 0.05%。随着固废掺量的增加,固废基CLSM的干缩不断增大,如图9所示5078。当掺入油砂废料时,随着掺量的增高,线性收缩率从0.031%增至0.082%。这是因为油砂废料为惰性材料起填充作用,导致硬化CLSM中的毛细孔更细,从而增加内部拉伸应力引起更大的收缩50。此时增加水泥含量能减少自由水的蒸发抑制收缩的发生。同时,研究还表明,高泌水性的CLSM表现出较低的收缩率79。掺入废橡胶颗粒后,CLSM的干缩虽有所增加但线性收缩率均小于0.025%,这说明掺入废橡胶颗粒对CLSM的干缩性能影响较小。对于吸水性较强的固废,掺入CLSM后通常引起较大的干缩。例如,水泥窑灰早期较强的保水力,导致水泥窑灰掺量大的CLSM表现出较高的干燥收缩率55;建筑渣土在水化过程中吸收了大量的水分,水分蒸发后干缩率增至0.051%~0.096%,且随着水泥含量的增加而增大;废蚝壳砂高吸水率使内部孔隙含水率增加,当孔隙中充满水时,由不参与水化反应并包裹空气的水转化而成的毛细孔隙数量逐渐减少,干缩率增至0.075%~0.12%80。此外,当采用杨氏模量低于天然砂的固废替代天然砂时,收缩率也会增大80。CLSM的干缩性能可通过添加钢纤维和木灰进行改善。钢纤维的掺入增加了CLSM的抗拉强度,从而有效抑制干缩微裂纹的发展,掺入1%~2%的钢纤维后干缩率降低22%~41%70;木灰的膨胀反应(CaO+H2O→ Ca(OH)2)可使CLSM的净收缩降至很小或轻微的程度81

3.4 固废基CLSM的渗透性能

CLSM的渗透系数一般为10-4~10-5 cm/s,随骨料的增加和胶凝材料的减少而增加。强度高、水胶比低或颗粒细度高的CLSM渗透率低,且高流动CLSM的渗透系数略高于低流动CLSM8283。掺入炉底灰CLSM的渗透系数为10-5~10-7 cm/s,类似于粉质黏土84。掺入池灰CLSM的渗透系数为5.4×10-5~7.5×10-7 cm/s,与压实的池灰(8.5×10-7 cm/s)相当82。掺入水泥窑灰CLSM的渗透系数为10.3×10-4~2.4×10-4 cm/s,与压实的颗粒状充填体或排水良好的洁净砂相当37。采用30%铸造砂取代粉煤灰以及采用10%~30%的废玻璃砂取代天然砂均会降低CLSM的渗透性4885。用炼钢渣取代10%~30%天然砂的CLSM的渗透系数为3.7×10-8~1.2×10-6 cm/s,具有良好的防渗性能,可用于防止地源热泵系统管道破裂液体泄漏40。CLSM的渗透性与平均粒径有关,在CLSM掺入较细的固废会细化基体的孔隙结构,导致渗透性降低,从而有助于减少浸出和离子运动86

4 无水泥固废基CLSM的性能

4.1 不同类型的无水泥固废基CLSM

现有研究多集中在水泥和砂的部分替代上,这限制了固废在CLSM中的利用。特别是,水泥仍然是CLSM生产中使用的主要黏结剂。然而,水泥行业每年的能源消耗已占全球总能源消耗的5%87,水泥行业的碳排放量于2018年已达15亿吨,约占全球人为碳排放总量的8%88。为消除CLSM中的水泥,研究人员尝试使用地聚合物材料开发无水泥固废基CLSM,如图10所示。

利用碱激发剂有利于降低泌水率、提高强度且不影响流动性89。无水泥固废基CLSM的凝结时间和抗压强度主要受碱激发剂的含量以及固废材料性质的影响。当碱激发剂含量和原材料的反应活性较低时,凝结时间通常超过20 h,甚至超过最大允许极限36 h80。有研究表明,同一材料体系下无论水胶比如何,水泥配制的CLSM的凝结时间都短于无水泥CLSM90。当原材料中CaO、SiO2和Al2O3的含量较高时,在碱激发剂的活化下有利于C-S-H和C-A-S-H凝胶的生成,从而提高强度。同时,碱激发剂的摩尔浓度与抗压强度呈线性正相关,增加碱激发剂的含量有利于加速碱活化反应,提高CLSM的抗压强度与耐久性899192。考虑到NaOH、KOH、Na2CO3等碱激发剂单价较高,为进一步降低CLSM的生产成本,赤泥、石灰、水泥窑灰等碱性固废被用作碱激发剂生产无水泥CLSM。其中,以粉煤灰、合成石膏、石灰石细粉为原材料组成的CLSM的凝结时间和抗压强度可在5~22 h、0.24~9.93 MPa内调控,且合成石膏的加入能显著提高CLSM的抗冻融性能93

4.2 强度形成机理

材料的微观结构属性决定了其宏观力学性能,研究无水泥固废基CLSM微观结构有助于揭示强度形成机理和材料组成对强度的影响。图11(a)~(d)是NaOH、KOH为碱激发剂的无水泥固废基CLSM的SEM图。粉煤灰和钢渣粉在NaOH的激发下反应生成C-S-H凝胶、钙矾石(Et)和波特兰石(CH)。随着钢渣粉掺量的增加,CaO溶出量增多,促使生成更多的C-S-H凝胶;同时,凝胶相中Ca/Si比随之增加致使微观结构更致密化,进而提高强度,如图12(a)所示74。粉煤灰和高炉矿渣在KOH的激发下主要生成具有大网状结构的C-S-H凝胶,这些凝胶能与铬铁渣颗粒形成牢固的复合胶结骨架结构91。在粉煤灰+粒化高炉矿渣+NaOH体系中掺入废水处理污泥能加快反应速度,生成更多C-S-H凝胶,填充于固体颗粒之间的空隙,形成致密结构,使CLSM具有良好的抗压强度94。由于高Si/Al比与较低的强度相关103,废水处理污泥、钢渣粉掺量的增加降低了Si/Al比,从而提高了抗压强度,如图12(b)所示7494。由赤泥、粒化高炉矿渣为胶凝材料的无水泥CLSM的强度来源主要是反应生成C-S-H和C-A-S-H凝胶相互交织形成以晶体为骨架、凝胶为填料的致密结构96

CaO+H2OCa(OH)2Ca(OH)2+SiO2+nH2OC-S-H3Ca(OH)2+Al2O3+3CaSO4·2H2O+26H2O
3CaO·Al2O3·3CaSO4·32H2O

图11(e)~(g)是石灰、赤泥为碱激发剂的无水泥固废基CLSM的SEM图。石灰、赤泥遇水会释放大量OH-形成高碱性环境,促使粉煤灰表面发生水解,释放Al3+、Si4+与Ca2+反应生成呈网状结构的C-S-H凝胶;而石膏释放的SO42-与CaO、Al2O3反应生成呈针状结构的钙矾石填充内部孔隙,且随着石膏含量的增加,较薄的长针状型钙矾石逐渐转化为厚度和密度较大的钙矾石,使微观结构更加致密化9899,进而提高强度。由于SiO2、Al2O3和CaO是火山灰反应的优势物质,随着体系中(CaO+Al2O3)/SiO2摩尔比的增加,抗压强度呈线性增加98,如图12(c)所示。以废玻璃粉(GP)和熟石灰(CH)为胶凝材料的无水泥固废基CLSM的强度来源主要是GP和CH发生火山灰反应形成C-S-H凝胶。随着GP/CH比的增加,体系中的Ca/Si比降低,促使C-S-H凝胶结构由Jennite型向Tobermorite型转变,C-S-H凝胶的三维网状结构变为二维层状结构,凝胶结构的致密性降低,进而导致强度降低102

4.3 无水泥固废基CLSM的耐久性

图13所示102,以废玻璃粉(GP)+熟石灰(CH)为胶凝材料的无水泥固废基CLSM经10次干湿/冻融循环后,最终残余强度分别为41%~89%和23%~74%,残余抗压强度随循环次数的增加而降低,最终残余强度与初始抗压强度呈正相关。当GP/CH=0.25时,大量未反应的Ca(OH)2溶解在水中,导致内部结构孔隙率增大、骨架断裂严重,经2个干湿循环后在水中完全坍塌。以Na2CO3激发循环流化床燃烧粉煤灰的CLSM在水中固化28 d后也表现出类似的破坏性质,归因于大量钙矾石的形成导致过度膨胀,发生强度自毁97。具有较好的抗干湿/冻融性能的CLSM通常含有较高的C-S-H,C-S-H 凝胶的结合机制有助于构建更加稳固的微观骨架结构102。基于碱激发反应或火山灰反应的无水泥固废基CLSM可以达到与水泥基相似的抗干湿/冻融耐久性,具有很大的潜力完全替代水泥。但因固废原材料化学组成和反应产物的不同,可能会导致无水泥固废基CLSM耐久性表现出一定差异104,不同固废组成的无水泥固废基CLSM的耐久性及其演化规律和微结构损伤值得关注。

5 结论与展望

CLSM作为一种可持续的绿色建筑材料,在降低水泥用量、减少天然砂消耗和高效回收利用固废方面展现出显著优势,契合低碳建筑材料的发展趋势。同时,CLSM具备高流动性、自填充密实、强度可控等特性,适用于各类回填工程,应用前景广阔。利用固废制备CLSM将是推动固废资源化利用的重要途径之一。本文对固废基CLSM性能的研究进展进行了评述,结论与展望如下:

(1)除取代比例外,固废本身的颗粒形态与大小、比表面积、细度、吸水性等物理特性以及化学成分、反应活性等化学特性均影响着CLSM的工作、力学性能。后续可采用流变学方法评估固废本身特性对CLSM浆体流变特性的影响,对固废的物理特性和化学特性进行标准化,以便控制和预测固废基CLSM的性能。

(2)固废材料的自胶结性、细小颗粒的填充效应、火山灰效应有助于CLSM的强度发展。建议将固废分为无反应活性的惰性填料、碱活性固废材料和自身具有水化活性的固废材料3类,在原材料配合比设计时,按固废类型、取代方式以及实际需求进行选择;同时联合使用不同类型的固废,如通过添加具有火山灰活性的固废来改善由惰性固废制成的CLSM的性能,以探讨其协同效应。

(3)运用机器学习算法可高精度预测固废基CLSM流动性和强度,并识别出关键影响因素和规律,有助于快速优化配合比设计。但固废原料成分的复杂多变性导致其性能不易控制,在建立预测模型不仅要考虑配合比的影响,还需引入固废材料本身的性质参数,生成预测模型基础数据库。此外,除流动性和强度外,还应考虑泌水性、凝结时间等参数,扩大模型的预测指标范围。

(4)掺入吸水性较强的固废极易降低CLSM的抗干湿⁃冻融循环、抗硫酸盐侵蚀性能,增加干缩开裂,影响长期使用性能。增加CLSM的初始强度、内部结构密实度或掺入钢纤维提高抗拉强度能有效提高其耐久性。对固废基CLSM耐久性的系统研究有待进一步完善,建议加强对固废基CLSM耐干湿-冻融、耐氯盐、硫酸盐、酸碱侵蚀及其耦合作用下的耐久性研究,揭示不同固废基CLSM耐久性的演化规律及机理,优化CLSM的耐久性。

(5)利用NaOH、Na2CO3等碱激发剂以及赤泥、石灰等碱性固废可实现全部取代水泥和天然骨料,有助于进一步提高固废的利用率和可持续性。无水泥固废基CLSM的强度形成主要是在碱性环境下发生缩聚反应生成C-S-H(C-A-S-H)凝胶或钙矾石填充孔隙使结构致密化,强度与Ca/Si、Si/Al和(CaO+Al2O3)/SiO2摩尔比呈线性关系。其耐久性与反应产物的数量有关,钙矾石的膨胀及Ca(OH)2的溶解易引起强度自毁。在开发无水泥固废基CLSM时可借助热力学模拟预测水化产物类型和数量,从而进行性能预测和配合比优化。需重点关注的是无水泥固废基CLSM的耐久性、腐蚀性和重金属长期浸出行为。

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基金资助

国家自然科学基金项目(52372334)

云南省重点研发计划项目(202303AA080016)

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