肿瘤治疗的新策略:抗血管生成治疗的耐药机制研究

邢帆 ,  何铭含 ,  李欣 ,  樊欣悦 ,  杜娟 ,  代怡晨 ,  高于斐 ,  张静 ,  高宁

延安大学学报(医学科学版) ›› 2026, Vol. 24 ›› Issue (3) : 90 -98.

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延安大学学报(医学科学版) ›› 2026, Vol. 24 ›› Issue (3) : 90 -98. DOI: 10.19893/j.cnki.ydyxb.2026-0067
医学综述

肿瘤治疗的新策略:抗血管生成治疗的耐药机制研究

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摘要

肿瘤的发生发展依赖于异常血管的形成,这类增生的血管既能为肿瘤细胞提供充足营养,也是其实现侵袭转移的关键路径。随着肿瘤血管生成机制的逐步阐明,抗血管生成治疗已成为一类极具应用前景的肿瘤靶向治疗策略,其核心机制是靶向血管内皮生长因子(vascular endothelial growth factor,VEGF)及其相关信号转导通路,通过抑制肿瘤微环境中异常血管的生成与成熟,阻断肿瘤的营养供给与转移路径,从而抑制肿瘤进展。目前,临床中常用的抗血管生成剂主要包括抗VEGF信号通路的大分子单抗类药物、抗VEGFR等受体小分子多靶点酪氨酸激酶抑制剂以及重组人血管内皮抑制剂。然而,临床实践中发现,尽管多数患者在治疗初期可获得一定疗效,但随着治疗的持续,部分患者会逐渐出现获得性耐药,导致治疗效果下降,甚至治疗失败,极大地限制了抗血管生成治疗的临床应用。针对这一临床难题,本文系统总结了抗血管生成治疗耐药的主要分子机制,为临床抗耐药治疗策略的制定以及相关基础与转化研究提供理论参考和思路支撑。

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肿瘤 / 血管生成 / 耐药机制

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邢帆,何铭含,李欣,樊欣悦,杜娟,代怡晨,高于斐,张静,高宁. 肿瘤治疗的新策略:抗血管生成治疗的耐药机制研究[J]. 延安大学学报(医学科学版), 2026, 24(3): 90-98 DOI:10.19893/j.cnki.ydyxb.2026-0067

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恶性肿瘤源于细胞发生恶性转化,其核心生物学特征为增殖失控,进展至晚期可通过侵袭与扩散的方式实现远处转移[1-2]。肿瘤细胞生长需要消耗大量的氧气和营养物质,当肿瘤体积超过1~2 mm3时,单纯的被动扩散已无法满足其自身需求。此时,肿瘤细胞可分泌多种促血管生成因子,诱导周围正常血管向肿瘤内部出芽形成新生微血管。这类肿瘤源性新生血管属于病理性血管,与正常血管相比,具有通透性高、形态曲折、排列紊乱、血流受损等特点,更利于肿瘤细胞入侵血液循环,进而发生远处器官转移[3-4]。与此同时,肿瘤血管的灌注不良会导致局部缺氧,进一步诱导促血管生成因子大量释放,形成了一个推动肿瘤进展的恶性循环[5-6]。
20世纪70年代,Folkman率先提出抗血管生成治疗理念,主张通过抑制肿瘤血管生成来限制肿瘤的生长与转移[7-8]。随着肿瘤血管生成机制的逐步阐明,首个抗血管生成药物贝伐单抗获批用于转移性结直肠癌的治疗,标志着抗血管生成治疗进入临床应用阶段[9-10]。抗血管生成药物最初旨在饥饿肿瘤,但是大多数肿瘤患者的生存获益不大,主要原因是肿瘤通过多种机制对抗血管生成药物产生耐药[11-12]。近年来,抗血管生成治疗的耐药难题已引发广泛关注,并得到深入探究。本篇文章系统综述了抗血管生成治疗耐药的核心分子机制,以期为临床克服耐药及确立相关靶向策略提供参考与思路。

1 抗血管生成治疗的主要靶点

血管内环境的稳定受大量促血管生成因子和抗血管生成因子的协同调控,当这两类因子处于动态平衡时,脉管系统是相对静止的。然而,肿瘤细胞为了满足自身对营养物质的需求,会大量分泌促血管生成因子,打破这种平衡,使调控“天平”向促血管生成方向倾斜。目前,已发现多种促血管生成因子及其受体参与肿瘤血管生成(图1),其中部分为临床已确认的抗血管生成治疗靶点,部分为仍处于研究阶段的潜在靶点。

VEGF通路是目前临床已确认的、肿瘤血管生成的核心驱动靶点,其通过与对应受体结合,激活下游PI3K、MAPK、RAS、ERK及PLC-γ等信号通路,进而调控内皮细胞(endothelial cells, EC)存活、增殖、迁移、分化以及通透性[13-14]。不仅如此,VEGF在恶性肿瘤的发展中具有局部和全身免疫抑制功能,既能抑制细胞毒性T淋巴细胞的运输和增殖,又能促进免疫抑制细胞的募集,其作为抗血管生成治疗靶点的有效性已被大量临床研究证实,且已有相关靶向药物广泛应用于临床[15]。血小板衍生生长因子(platelet derived growth factor, PDGF)及其受体是临床辅助抗血管生成治疗的确认靶点,部分多靶点抑制剂已覆盖该靶点。作为一类强效生长因子,其与对应受体结合后,不仅激活与VEGF相同或相似的通路,还可以促进周细胞的募集并指导周细胞向新生血管迁移,从而增强血管的稳定性[16]。PDGF常与VEGF协同调控肿瘤血管生成,在缺氧或创伤修复时,VEGF先诱导血管初步形成,PDGF则进一步促进血管成熟和稳定[17]。此外,成纤维细胞生长因子、表皮生长因子、胰岛素样生长因子及Notch信号通路均为抗血管生成治疗的潜在靶点,目前相关靶向调控机制的研究仍在持续探索中[18-20]。

2 抗血管生成药物的疗效与挑战

目前,已有多种抗血管生成药物获批用于临床恶性肿瘤治疗(表1)。大量研究证实,多数抗血管生成药物可降低肿瘤血管密度、阻断肿瘤血供,进而有效地抑制肿瘤生长。但各类药物的疗效存在个体差异,且长期应用仍存在耐药、疗效衰减、不良反应明显、缺乏特异性标志物等难题。其中,耐药性是制约抗血管生成药物疗效、导致治疗失败的核心因素[21]。

非小细胞肺癌(non-small cell lung cancer, NSCLC)是抗血管生成治疗应用最广泛的恶性肿瘤类型,其耐药机制主要包括VEGF信号通路紊乱、肿瘤免疫抑制微环境形成及VM的参与[22]。研究[23]发现,在对EGFR酪氨酸激酶抑制剂产生耐药的NSCLC细胞中,VEGF信号通路呈现多维度异常激活状态,其异常涉及VEGF家族成员(VEGF-A、VEGF-C)、对应受体(VEGFR2和KDR)及下游信号通路的异常表达与激活。不仅如此,VEGF的过度激活还会诱导肿瘤相关巨噬细胞(tumor-associated macrophages, TAM)向M2型极化,进而形成利于肿瘤生长的免疫抑制微环境,进一步削弱机体抗肿瘤免疫应答。在肝细胞癌中,抗血管生成治疗的耐药机制主要涉及血管生成信号通路的替代性激活、缺氧微环境、VM及代谢重编程。其中,缺氧状态及PI3K/AKT通路的异常激活,可上调缺氧诱导因子-1α(hypoxia-inducible factor 1-alpha,HIF-1α)的表达,进而促进糖酵解酶的合成,此时肿瘤细胞可借助瓦伯格效应高效获取生长所需的能量,而伴随糖酵解产生的乳酸,会进一步诱导肿瘤血管生成,最终削弱抗血管生成药物的治疗效果[24]。在结直肠癌中,抗血管生成治疗的耐药机制主要包括VEGF通路的异常激活、肿瘤干细胞的调控作用及肠道菌群失衡。当肠道菌群失衡时,其代谢产物稳态会受到破坏,其中胆汁酸可通过多种分子机制增强肿瘤细胞的增殖与转移能力,并促进肿瘤血管生成,最终诱发抗血管生成治疗耐药[25]。卵巢癌的抗血管生成治疗耐药与免疫抑制微环境密切相关,其中CAF可以促进肿瘤血管生成与重塑,进而介导肿瘤细胞对治疗的抵抗[26]。深入探究不同恶性肿瘤耐药的特异性机制,将为抗血管生成治疗的优化提供重要理论支撑,最终助力克服耐药难题。

3 抗血管生成治疗耐药的分子机制

3.1 替代性血管生成信号通路的激活

VEGF-A作为肿瘤血管生成的核心,是靶向抑制肿瘤血管形成的明星靶点[43]。然而,在抗血管治疗过程中,肿瘤细胞及相关促血管生成细胞可通过代偿性表达VEGF-C和胎盘生长因子,持续维持肿瘤血管的生成,进而削弱抗血管治疗的效果。此外,肿瘤细胞还可通过激活VEGF非依赖性信号通路而逃避抗VEGF治疗,在使用VEGFR抑制剂干预治疗时,FGF/FGFR、EGF/EGFR及HGF/c-MET等信号通路被快速激活,替代VEGF通路的促血管生成功能[44]。δ样蛋白4-Notch受体(delta-like protein 4-notch receptor, Dll4-Notch)与VEGF在新血管生成及血管发芽协调过程中发挥关键调控作用。研究[45]证实,Dll4的表达受VEGF信号调控,若单纯抑制VEGF,会导致肿瘤血管出现生长迅速和结构紊乱的现象,进而削弱抗血管生成药物的治疗效果。肝细胞生长因子(hepatocyte growth factor, HGF)在多种恶性肿瘤中表达上调,该因子可显著上调VEGF的表达,且即便阻断VEGF信号,HGF仍能独立促进新血管形成,从而避开了抗VEGF药物的作用,导致抗血管治疗效果下降[46]。

肿瘤血管生成的关键因子及其信号通路并非独立发挥作用,而是在抗血管生成治疗过程中形成了复杂的交互调控与代偿网络。这些通路之间还存在紧密的级联激活关系,通过信号的逐级传导与放大,进而增强肿瘤血管的生成能力。其中,HGF/c-Met通路可激活下游NF-κB信号通路,进一步形成级联正反馈环路,介导肿瘤对抗血管生成治疗产生耐药[47]。肿瘤血管生成信号通路的复杂性,提示抗血管生成治疗应聚焦于多通路联合抑制或靶向调控网络中的关键节点,从而有效地提升治疗效果。

3.2 非血管生成的血管重塑机制

血管共选是指肿瘤细胞直接利用宿主器官中预先存在的血管,以维持自身生长与转移,该机制多发生于肿瘤进展早期,因此肿瘤细胞对靶向VEGF等促血管生成因子的药物不敏感。这种耐药机制主要存在于脑肿瘤、肺癌及肝癌等血管密集的肿瘤中,也是此类肿瘤抗血管生成治疗发生原发性耐药的主要原因之一[48]。目前,关于血管共选的分子机制尚不完全明确,已有研究[49]表明其可能与血管黏附及内皮-间质转化(endothelial-to-mesenchymal transition, EMT)密切相关。有研究[50]探究脑转移分子机制时发现,耗尽黏附因子L1CAM后,会阻碍肿瘤细胞通过血管共选的方式利用脑组织的脉管系统。此外,Wnt7a、Runt相关转录因子1及丝氨酸蛋白酶2,不仅可参与调控EMT过程,还可促进肿瘤细胞通过血管共选途径获取营养,进一步推动肿瘤进展。

血管生成拟态(vasculogenic mimicry, VM)是指部分具有EC相似功能的肿瘤细胞,在无EC参与的情况下,自行排列形成血管样结构,从而实现独立于经典血管生成途径的血供重建过程,多在抗血管生成治疗压力下被激活,主要发生在治疗后肿瘤进展阶段。VM在结直肠癌、肝癌及肾癌中更为常见,能够介导肿瘤继发性(获得性)耐药的形成与发展[51]。在神经胶质瘤中,VEGF-A可显著促进VM的发生[52]。此外,缺氧环境亦可在多种肿瘤中诱导VM形成。HIF-1α不仅可通过上调纤维肉瘤中神经纤毛蛋白-1的表达促进VM发生,还可通过上调黑色素瘤和食管癌中VE-钙黏蛋白的表达,进而推动VM形成。敲低HIF-1α后,EphA2、VE-钙黏蛋白等VM相关基因的表达水平也随之下调[53]。

综上,血管共选的发生依赖于肿瘤细胞与EC之间黏附分子的表达,而VM的发生与VEGF及HIF等旁路信号通路的激活密切相关。二者作用模式虽不相同,但可在部分肿瘤中协同存在,共同构成复杂的耐药网络,深入探究二者在不同肿瘤类型中的调控机制,对于优化抗血管生成治疗策略具有重要意义。

3.3 内皮-间质转化

EC具有显著表型可塑性,可失去其形态与功能,获得间充质干细胞的增殖、迁移及胶原合成能力,即EMT。E-钙黏蛋白的缺失及间充质蛋白的表达升高是其重要特征[54]。转化生长因子-β(transforming growth factor-β, TGF-β)在肿瘤组织中常呈现高表达状态,被公认为是诱导EMT发生的主要因子[55]。在食管腺癌中,TGF-β可通过调控NF-κB通路,诱导EMT的发生[56]。在前列腺癌中,RFX6作为调节因子X家族的成员,可通过上调转录因子HOXA10的表达,激活TGF-β信号通路,进而促进EMT发生,增强肿瘤细胞的转移能力[57]。除TGF-β外,HGF同样被证实参与EMT进程的调控。TWIST1不仅是介导EMT发生的核心转录因子,也是HGF诱导肿瘤耐药的关键下游效应分子[58]。

EC发生转化后,其分裂和运动能力显著增强,同时VE-钙黏蛋白表达下调,细胞间黏附能力下降,进一步导致肿瘤微环境中异常血管生成增多,在加速肿瘤进展的同时也诱导了肿瘤对治疗的抵抗。此外,EMT还参与免疫抑制微环境的形成。在结直肠癌中,转化的EC通过分泌CC族趋化因子配体2(CCL2,MCP-1)诱导M2型TAM活化,进一步引发肿瘤进展及免疫抑制,最终加速肿瘤恶化并削弱抗血管生成治疗的效果[59]。目前,免疫疗法与抗血管生成疗法在联合治疗恶性肿瘤方面已取得了显著成效[60]。免疫抑制微环境的逆转,对提升免疫治疗疗效至关重要。因此,靶向EMT以调节EC功能、改善免疫抑制微环境,在恶性肿瘤治疗方面是一种极具前景的治疗策略。

3.4 缺氧微环境

缺氧是肿瘤微环境的重要特征之一,面对低氧环境,肿瘤细胞可进行代谢重编程,通过改变糖酵解相关蛋白的表达,增加葡萄糖摄取以促进肿瘤的生长。缺氧诱导因子在肿瘤微环境中呈现高表达状态,可以帮助肿瘤细胞及基质细胞适应缺氧环境[61]。HIF-1α主要参与肿瘤急性缺氧应答,促进肿瘤细胞能量代谢从氧化磷酸化转向糖酵解,进而增强肿瘤在缺氧环境中的生存能力。HIF-1α不仅可通过上调分泌蛋白ESM1的表达,促进卵巢癌的糖酵解进程和VM的发生[62],还可通过激活VEGF及Notch信号通路,促进EC依赖性血管生成[63]。此外,HIF-1α与肿瘤迁移、侵袭进程密切相关,可上调MMP2、MMP9及EMT相关分子claudin-4、波形蛋白、E-钙黏蛋白的表达,最终驱动肿瘤恶性进展并诱导抗血管治疗耐药[64]。

缺氧诱导因子-2α(hypoxia-inducible factor 2-alpha,HIF-2α)在介导慢性缺氧适应、血管重塑及免疫抑制微环境的维持中发挥关键作用,在长期抗血管生成治疗诱导的缺氧环境中更为关键。HIF-2α能够通过调节血管成熟相关因子Ang-2的表达,促进血管重塑与增强血管的稳定性,减少机体对传统抗血管生成药物的敏感性,最终增强肿瘤在治疗压力下的存活能力[65]。此外,HIF-2α在调控肿瘤免疫抑制微环境方面具有独特作用,通过促进M2型TAM与调节性T细胞(regulatory T cell, Treg)活化,参与肿瘤免疫逃逸,最终削弱抗血管生成药物的治疗效果[66]。HIF-1α与HIF-2α并非完全独立,而是通过协同与互补的方式诱导抗血管生成治疗耐药。因此,深入探究二者在不同肿瘤中的作用,可为HIF抑制剂的研发及克服抗血管生成治疗耐药提供重要理论依据。

3.5 免疫抑制细胞的作用

肿瘤微环境中的免疫细胞在肿瘤生长和对治疗的反应中扮演着重要角色,与抗血管生成治疗耐药之间存在着多种联系(图2)。肿瘤相关免疫细胞按其功能可分为肿瘤抑制型免疫细胞和肿瘤促进型免疫细胞,与抗血管生成治疗耐药相关的主要是微环境中的肿瘤促进型免疫细胞,主要包括M2型TAM、Treg、髓源性抑制细胞(myeloid-derived suppressor cell, MDSC)和B淋巴细胞。

Treg细胞可通过两种途径抑制抗肿瘤免疫细胞的活性:一是通过直接的细胞接触;二是通过分泌TGF-β、IL-10及IL-35等免疫调节细胞因子。同时,其还可上调免疫检查点分子CTLA-4和PD-1的表达,最终促进肿瘤的生长、转移及血管生成[67]。此外,Treg细胞的聚集会导致VEGF水平升高,进一步促进肿瘤血管生成,最终削弱抗血管生成药物的治疗效果[68]。MDSC在肿瘤免疫抑制及诱导肿瘤血管生成过程中同样发挥关键作用:一方面,其可通过抑制细胞毒性T淋巴细胞和自然杀伤细胞的活性,进而削弱机体抗肿瘤免疫功能;另一方面,可通过促进FGF、PDGF及HGF等促血管生成因子的表达,促进肿瘤血管生成[69]。M2型TAM是介导抗血管生成治疗耐药的核心参与者,其不仅可通过HIF-1α依赖方式分泌CXCL12招募EC,还可通过分泌TNF-α激活NF-κB通路,进而促进VEGF、FGF及PDGF的表达,最终加剧肿瘤对抗血管生成药物的耐药[70]。阐明肿瘤微环境中各类免疫细胞与肿瘤血管生成的相互作用及其分子机制,能够为构建抗血管生成治疗联合免疫治疗策略提供重要的理论依据。

4 总结与展望

抗血管生成治疗现已成为多种恶性肿瘤的重要治疗手段,然而,耐药性和不良反应是限制抗血管生成药物长期疗效的关键问题[71]。肿瘤血管正常化有望成为克服抗血管生成治疗耐药的有效策略。由2型神经纤维瘤病NF2基因编码的Merlin,作为肿瘤血管生成的关键分子守门人,可通过减少VEGFR2的内化,抑制尖端细胞的形成并维持毛细血管完整性,从而调控肿瘤血管的生成过程[72]。此外,PTPN11编码的蛋白酪氨酸磷酸酶SHP 2在包括血管EC在内的多种细胞中普遍表达,其功能异常可影响肿瘤血管的生长与密度。研究[73]发现,敲除SHP 2后,不仅能降低肿瘤血管密度、抑制肿瘤生长,还会导致肿瘤血管趋于正常化,增加血管灌注并提高周细胞覆盖度,这些改变均有利于药物发挥作用及提升联合免疫治疗的效果。通过基因编辑技术将这些决定血管生成的关键基因进行修饰并结合纳米递送技术,在提高治疗效果的同时,可显著减少脱靶毒性以及不良反应,为肿瘤患者的治疗带来更长远的临床获益[74-75]。

除此之外,血管相关生物标志物在预测疾病治疗反应及耐药性发生方面具有巨大潜力。然而,目前临床上可用于评估血管生成的生物标志物仍十分有限,未来需要加大对血管相关生物标志物的开发力度。近年来,抗血管生成治疗已不再局限于恶性肿瘤的治疗,在类风湿性关节炎和年龄相关的黄斑变性等非癌领域也展现出巨大潜力[76-78],这预示着抗血管治疗具有广阔的应用前景。

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基金资助

国家自然科学基金(32360162)

国家自然科学基金(32460232)

陕西省教育厅科研项目(23JK0732)

2025年陕西省大学生创新训练计划项目(S202510719111)

延安大学研究生科研创新计划项目(YKY2025009)

延安市科学技术协会青年人才托举计划项目(2023-20-1)

延安大学博士科研启动资金项目(YDBK 2023-30)

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