牙源性间充质干细胞来源细胞外囊泡的免疫调节作用

王博群 ,  陆慧 ,  穆晴 ,  赵玮

国际口腔医学杂志 ›› 2025, Vol. 52 ›› Issue (05) : 655 -661.

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国际口腔医学杂志 ›› 2025, Vol. 52 ›› Issue (05) : 655 -661. DOI: 10.7518/gjkq.2025084
综述

牙源性间充质干细胞来源细胞外囊泡的免疫调节作用

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Immune regulation mediated by extracellular vesicles from dental-derived mesenchymal stem cells

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摘要

干细胞产生的细胞外囊泡(EV)可携带多种具有生物活性的物质,是细胞间进行信息交流的重要介质。相较于其他组织来源的干细胞,牙源性间充质干细胞(DMSC)有着诸多独特的优势,其分泌的EV能够通过调控免疫细胞的活性及局部组织细胞的炎症水平,在创伤、感染等因素导致的疾病中起到免疫调节的作用,可应用于组织修复与再生医学领域。本文拟从免疫调节的角度出发,对DMSC来源的EV在口腔及其他疾病中的调节作用展开综述。

Abstract

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) released by stem cells carry various bioactive molecules that are essential for mediating intercellular communication. Compared with other tissues-derived stem cells, mesenchymal stem cells derived from dental tissues possess several unique advantages, including accessibility, proliferative capacity, and immunomodulatory potential. EVs secreted by these mesenchymal stem cells have been shown to influence immune cell function and modulate inflammatory responses within local cellular and tissue environments. These immunoregulatory properties are particularly relevant in the context of inflammation-related diseases resulting from trauma, infection, and other pathological stimuli, highlighting the potential of these EVs in tissue repair and regenerative medicine. This review focuses on the immunomodulatory roles of EVs from mesenchymal stem cells derived from dental tissues and their regulatory functions in oral and systemic inflammatory diseases.

关键词

细胞外囊泡 / 牙源性间充质干细胞 / 免疫调节

Key words

extracellular vesicle / dental-derived mesenchymal stem cell / immune regulation

引用本文

引用格式 ▾
王博群,陆慧,穆晴,赵玮. 牙源性间充质干细胞来源细胞外囊泡的免疫调节作用[J]. 国际口腔医学杂志, 2025, 52(05): 655-661 DOI:10.7518/gjkq.2025084

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牙源性间充质干细胞(dental-derived mesenchymal stem cell,DMSC)是一类从口腔组织中分离出的成体干细胞,其来源广泛、取材便捷、自我更新与分化能力强大,在再生医学领域中有着广阔的应用前景。近30年来,基于细胞外囊泡(extracellular vesicle,EV)的“无细胞疗法”为组织损伤的修复开辟了新领域。DMSC分泌的EV具有免疫调节能力,在创伤、感染等导致的疾病中有潜在的治疗作用。与骨髓间充质干细胞(bone marrow mesenchymal stem cell,BMMSC)等其他干细胞相比,DMSC来源的EV的免疫调节作用更强,在动物实验中表现出更优异的治疗效果[1-2]。本文拟对DMSC来源的EV在口腔及其他疾病中的免疫调节作用进行综述,为EV在治疗炎症疾病中的临床运用提供参考。

1  DMSC及其来源的EV

2000年,Gronthos等[3]从第三磨牙中提取出牙髓干细胞(dental pulp stem cell,DPSC),并证明其是一种可多向分化的间充质干细胞。此后,人脱落乳牙牙髓干细胞(stem cells from human exfoliated teeth,SHED)[4]、牙周膜干细胞(periodontal ligament stem cell,PDLSC)[5]、根尖乳头干细胞(stem cells from apical papilla,SCAP)[6]、牙囊干细胞(dental follicle stem cell,DFSC)[7]、牙龈间充质干细胞(gingival mesenchymal stem cell,GMSC)[8]等DMSC被发现。DMSC取材自口腔组织,具有强大的增殖和多向分化的能力,还具备免疫调节的潜能,这些优点使DMSC广泛应用于组织修复领域的研究当中。在免疫调节方面,DMSC能够通过影响免疫细胞的增殖及分化、刺激细胞因子的分泌等方式起到治疗作用。

EV是细胞释放的一类具有脂质双层膜结构的纳米级囊泡,含有脂质、蛋白质、核酸等活性分子。根据产生途径的不同,以往常将EV分为核内体来源的外泌体(exosomes)与质膜来源的微囊泡(microvesicle,MV)、凋亡囊泡(apoptotic vesicle,ApoV)三大亚类[9]。而国际细胞外囊泡学会(International Society for Extracellular Vesicles,ISEV)在2024年2月发布的官方指南[10]指出,当生物学产生途径不够明确时,建议使用“EV”进行描述,故本文使用“EV”一词统一指代有关概念。在EV当中,外泌体是组织修复领域中研究相对较多的类型;近年来也有学者[11]关注到DMSC分泌的ApoV,ApoV调控巨噬细胞炎症表型的作用已被证实,其中的具体机制有待后续研究。Wen等[12]认为,各种EV的性能与其来源细胞本身的功能相近,其中MV的功能与外泌体有许多相似之处,但目前针对DMSC来源的EV之间差异的研究相对较少。

EV可通过直接与受体细胞的细胞膜融合、受体-配体特异性识别及受体细胞的吞噬作用等机制进入细胞内,实现生物活性分子的细胞间传递,进而影响肿瘤、感染、神经退行性变等疾病[9,13]。EV能够经内吞作用参与受体细胞的信号转导,也可通过所含有的活性分子调控受体细胞内基因的表达和代谢进程。随着对细胞生理活动的研究逐渐深入,EV被证实是DMSC参与免疫调节的重要介质,其调节能力甚至比来源细胞更加优异[14]

2  DMSC来源EV的免疫调节作用

机体的免疫反应包括固有免疫和获得性免疫两大部分。巨噬细胞(macrophage)、树突状细胞(dentric cell)、自然杀伤细胞(natural killer cell,NK cell)等参与到了固有免疫当中。其中巨噬细胞可在不同环境下分别极化为激发炎症、引起免疫反应的M1型和抑制炎症、主导组织修复的M2型,这2种表型分别参与到炎症反应的发展和炎症后修复[15-17]。B细胞和T细胞是参与获得性免疫的主要免疫细胞,其中CD4+T细胞可分化为分泌促炎因子白细胞介素(interleukin,IL)-17、激活破骨细胞的辅助性T细胞(helper T cell,Th)17和使Th17细胞活性下降、减缓炎症反应的调节性T细胞(regulatory T cell,Treg),在诸多疾病中存在Th17/Treg细胞比例失调[18-19]。除此之外,组织原位细胞本身也可通过分泌促进炎症的肿瘤坏死因子(tumor necrosis factor,TNF)-α、IL-1、IL-6及抑制炎症的IL-10等细胞因子参与到炎症反应当中[20-21]

多数关于DMSC来源EV免疫调节的研究主要涉及EV对巨噬细胞、T细胞和组织原位细胞三者的调控。DMSC来源的EV能够影响免疫细胞的增殖分化与免疫活性、调控炎性细胞因子的分泌,同时缓解局部组织细胞炎症,实现免疫调节。DMSC来源的EV可调节巨噬细胞极化,改变其分泌TNF、IL等细胞因子的能力,抑制M1型巨噬细胞内的氧化应激;EV可平衡组织中Th17细胞和Treg细胞的比例,控制牙周与牙髓炎症;EV还能降低原位细胞炎症水平,减少炎性细胞的凋亡比例,减轻组织内炎性细胞浸润,同时抑制炎性环境下破骨细胞的活化。

需要注意的是,不同生理状态下DMSC所产生的EV的免疫调节作用不同。改变细胞的培养环境[22-23]、对细胞施加适当的机械刺激[24]等预处理也可改变EV中的生物活性物质,强化其免疫调节的性能。此外,EV能削弱牙龈卟啉单胞菌及变异链球菌的致病性,具有抗菌功能[25-26]。研究证实:DMSC来源的EV能够在牙周炎、牙髓炎、口腔黏膜疾患等疾病及非口腔疾病中实现免疫调节,具有修复受损组织、治疗炎性疾病的强大潜力。

3  DMSC来源的EV在口腔疾病中的免疫调节作用

3.1  在牙周炎中的免疫调节作用

DMSC来源EV可调控巨噬细胞极化,影响牙周炎病程进展。Nakao等[27]使用TNF-α预处理GMSC,其释放的EV可通过表面高表达的CD73诱导巨噬细胞M2型极化、并经miR-1260b/Wnt5a轴抑制破骨细胞形成,经双重途径缓解牙槽骨丢失。经不同浓度脂多糖(lipopolysaccharide,LPS)预处理后DMSC产生的EV,可对巨噬细胞的M1和M2向极化产生截然不同的影响[28-29]。研究人员认为,这一效应是因为在不同浓度的LPS刺激下,来源细胞内不同的Toll样受体(toll like receptor,TLR)被激活,经下级信号通路,使其产生的EV所携带的活性物质存在差异,进而影响了EV的调节能力。此外,将EV与生物支架联合应用,所搭建的复合材料可在体内缓释EV,抑制巨噬细胞分泌IL-6、IL-1等促炎因子,增强EV促进巨噬细胞M2型极化的作用,实现更好的治疗效果[30-31]

DMSC来源的EV能够调节T细胞的分化,控制牙周炎水平。PDLSC来源EV可经miR-155-5p/SIRT蛋白(sirtuin)-1轴调节低叉头翼螺旋转录分子(Forkhead box P,Foxp)-3基因的表达,恢复牙周Th17/Treg细胞平衡[19]。GMSC来源EV可促进CD4+T细胞分泌抗炎因子IL-10,诱导其Treg向分化[2]。三维环境下培养DPSC分泌EV的能力比二维培养DPSC更强,且3D-EV中miR-1246可作用于CD4+T细胞中的活化T细胞核因子(nuclear factor of activated T-cells,NFAT)-5,抑制Th17向分化,减轻牙周炎症[23]

DMSC来源EV还可调控牙周组织原位细胞炎症程度。DPSC来源EV可通过IL-6/Janus激酶(janus kinase,JAK)2/信号转导和转录激活因子(signal transducer and activator of transcription,STAT)3信号通路,使LPS刺激后PDLSC的炎症水平下降[20]。Huang等[32]发现:250 ng/mL浓度LPS预处理DFSC产生的EV,可降低牙周炎患者来源牙周膜细胞(periodontal ligament cell,PDLC)的凋亡水平,抑制破骨细胞的活化。使用90 mW/cm²的脉冲超声振荡SCAP后,其产生的EV能使炎性PDLC炎症水平下降,并增强其成骨向分化的能力[24]。GMSC来源的EV也可通过miR-1260b/转录激活因子(activating transcription factor,ATF)-5β轴改善PDLC的内质网应激,并减少破骨细胞的生成[33]。除免疫调节之外,EV还可作用于PDLC、PDLSC等原位细胞,促进骨组织再生[34-35]

现有的相关研究多注重于EV通过对牙周组织中巨噬细胞、T细胞及组织原位细胞的调控实现免疫调节。而牙周炎病因复杂,其涉及中性粒细胞、B细胞、补体及免疫细胞间相互作用等多方面综合因素。DMSC来源的EV是否可通过其他的调节途径对牙周炎起到治疗作用,需要未来更加深入的研究。

3.2  在牙髓炎中的免疫调节作用

DMSC来源的EV可缓解牙髓炎症,并为牙髓修复营造有利环境。在调控巨噬细胞方面,Zheng等[16]发现:DPSC来源的EV能够将miR-125a-3p传递至牙髓组织中的巨噬细胞,既通过抑制TLR4/髓样分化因子(myeloid differentiation factor,MyD)- 88/核因子(nuclear transcription factor,NF)-κB通路,降低巨噬细胞的炎症水平,使巨噬细胞向M2表型转变;还促进巨噬细胞分泌骨形态生成蛋白(bone morphogenetic proteins,BMP)-2,为DPSC的成牙本质向分化提供有利条件。在调控T细胞方面,Yu等[18]发现:SCAP来源EV可通过10-11易位甲基胞嘧啶双加氧酶(ten-eleven translocation,Tet)-2介导的途径,降低Foxp-3基因的甲基化程度,促进Treg细胞形成,抑制牙髓炎症。在调控原位细胞的炎症水平方面,DPSC来源的EV可通过调节局部炎症环境,降低DPSC表达促炎因子IL-6、IL-1α、TNF-α的水平,提高抑炎因子IL-10的表达,同时减少LPS诱导的炎性DPSC的凋亡[21]

传统理念认为,当发生炎症反应后,牙髓组织将会产生不可逆性的坏死。由此,诸多学者关注的是应用DMSC产生的EV实现牙髓再生[36-37]。而新近的研究发现:轻度炎症状态下的牙髓仍保留了一定的防御能力,这使得学界逐渐关注到调节牙髓炎症,恢复其正常形态与功能的可能手段。随着对EV调节能力的了解不断深入,基于EV的免疫调节策略有望为活髓保存治疗提供新的思路。

3.3  在口腔黏膜疾患中的免疫调节作用

目前,关于DMSC来源EV在口腔黏膜疾患中的调节作用及相关机制研究较少。Eren Belgin等[38]在小鼠颊侧黏膜敷用牙髓间充质干细胞来源的EV,治疗种植体材料镍导致的黏膜过敏,他们发现:EV可减少颊黏膜组织中CD4+T细胞的数量,降低炎症细胞的浸润水平。在小鼠腭黏膜损伤模型中,局部注射GMSC来源的EV可加速伤口愈合;其中EV所包含的拮抗IL-1β受体的IL-1RA表达升高,推测EV可通过影响IL-1相关免疫反应,调节组织免疫微环境[39]。EV如何在这些疾病中起到治疗作用,有待将来更加全面、深入的研究。

4  DMSC来源的EV在其他疾病中的免疫调节作用

4.1  在神经系统疾病中的调节作用

DMSC产生的EV通过可提高小胶质细胞(巨噬细胞)的免疫防御能力,介导神经修复。SHED来源EV可促进小胶质细胞的糖酵解,促使其转向M2表型,下调其吞噬能力[40];还可通过乳脂球表皮生长因子(milk fat globule epidermal growth factor,MFG-E)8与小胶质细胞表面受体结合,促进小胶质细胞的迁移[41]。DPSC来源EV可抑制小胶质细胞NF-κB通路激活,降低卒中小鼠脑组织中活化细胞的炎症水平[42];经活性氧(reactive oxygen species,ROS)/丝裂原活化蛋白激酶(mitogen activated protein kinase,MAPK)/NF-κB/p65通路,减少巨噬细胞M1型极化,修复损伤后的脊髓组织[43]。SCAP来源的EV也可抑制小胶质细胞IL-6、IL-1β等促炎标志基因的表达,EV中的miRNA可能在此当中发挥了重要作用[44]

多数研究关注的是DMSC来源EV在神经系统疾病中对小胶质细胞(巨噬细胞)的调控,因DMSC本身可分泌神经营养因子、促进受损区域血管再生,进而改善神经系统损伤,EV是否存在与之相似的功能,值得在将来进一步关注。

4.2  在骨关节疾病中的调节作用

动物实验证实,DMSC来源的EV能够以miRNA为介质,通过抑制破骨细胞及巨噬细胞活化、减少细胞凋亡,治疗骨关节疾病。在颞下颌关节骨关节病中,SHED来源的EV可经miR-100-5p/哺乳动物雷帕霉素靶蛋白(mammalian target of rapamycin,mTOR)轴,降低软骨细胞基质金属蛋白酶(matrix metalloproteinase,MMP)-1、MMP-3、MMP-9、MMP-13、解积素和伴血小板反应蛋白基序金属蛋白酶(a disintegrin and metal-loproteinase with thrombospondin motifs,ADAMTS)-5的表达,减轻关节炎症[45]。Tian等[22]发现:1%浓度氧气培养DPSC来源EV能够显著促进巨噬细胞M2型极化,并抑制破骨细胞形成,缓解LPS导致的小鼠炎性颅骨溶解,而EV携带的miR-210-3p在此过程中发挥了重要作用。过表达miR-140-5p的DPSC来源的EV,可使软骨细胞凋亡比例下降,诱导其成软骨样分化,改善小鼠膝关节炎中骨赘的形成[46]

DMSC来源的EV还可在动物体内治疗心肌缺血[15,47]、组织水肿[48]、皮肤瘙痒[49]和结肠炎症[50]等疾病。然而,不同细胞产生的EV的调节性能存在差异。鉴于全身各系统疾病具有独特的病因及病理进程,对各类EV的不同性能进行深入研究和比较,并结合具体疾病的免疫反应特点,选用合适来源的EV进行精准治疗,可更好地满足临床需求。

5  小结与展望

DMSC产生的EV具有良好的免疫调节能力。EV能够调节巨噬细胞、T细胞等免疫细胞的增殖、分化、凋亡与炎症表型,影响TNF、IL等炎症因子的分泌,在牙周炎、牙髓炎、口腔黏膜疾患、神经系统及骨关节系统疾病的治疗中有应用潜力。然而,不同预处理后EV中所含活性物质、不同来源EV的调控作用存在差异。相信在将来,随着对EV的调控作用、EV工程化处理及临床转化的研究不断深入,基于DMSC来源EV的“无细胞疗法”有望为炎症相关性疾病的治疗提供新方式。

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