口腔及肠道微生物与儿童全身系统性疾病的相关性研究进展

冯涵果 ,  饶南荃 ,  曾馨仪 ,  余思源 ,  刘娟

国际口腔医学杂志 ›› 2025, Vol. 52 ›› Issue (06) : 806 -815.

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国际口腔医学杂志 ›› 2025, Vol. 52 ›› Issue (06) : 806 -815. DOI: 10.7518/gjkq.2025097
综述

口腔及肠道微生物与儿童全身系统性疾病的相关性研究进展

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Research progress on the relationship among oral microbiota, gut microbiota, and systemic diseases in children

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摘要

口腔是消化道的起点。患有全身系统性疾病的个体肠道中,口腔来源的细菌水平增加。口腔微生物可以通过多种途径作用于肠道,导致肠道微生物失调和胃肠黏膜损伤等。与成人相比,儿童的口腔和肠道微生物随自身生长发育而不断发展,对外界刺激更加敏感。儿童期是微生物干预的重要时期。本文对口腔、肠道微生物的建立和发展,以及两者在儿童全身系统性疾病中的作用关系进行综述,为疾病的预防、诊断和治疗提供新的思路。

Abstract

The oral cavity is a gateway to the gastrointestinal tract. The relative abundance of common oral bacteria in the intestine of individuals with systemic diseases increases. The oral microbiota interact with the intestinal microbiota, which induces intestinal dysbiosis and intestinal mucosa damage. Compared with the oral and intestinal microbiota of adults, those of children are more sensitive to external stimuli, and they change dynamically with growth and development. Childhood may be the critical time for microbiota interventions to prevent diseases. This review discusses the establishment and development of oral and intestinal microbiota. The relationship between oral microbiota and intestinal microbiota in children with systemic diseases is also determined. This review offers new avenues for the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of diseases.

关键词

口腔微生物 / 肠道微生物 / 儿童 / 系统性疾病

Key words

oral microbiomes / gastrointestinal microbiomes / children / system diseases

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冯涵果,饶南荃,曾馨仪,余思源,刘娟. 口腔及肠道微生物与儿童全身系统性疾病的相关性研究进展[J]. 国际口腔医学杂志, 2025, 52(06): 806-815 DOI:10.7518/gjkq.2025097

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微生物群落通过与宿主相互作用,影响宿主的生理代谢功能和免疫系统稳态[1-2]。肠道微生物和口腔微生物分别是人体最大和第二大的微生物群落[3-4]。口腔是消化道的起点,正常情况下,大部分口腔中的共生微生物进入肠道后会被胃酸和天然微生物的定植抗性等灭活[5]。有研究发现:炎症性肠病(inflammatory bowel diseases,IBD)[6]和孤独症谱系障碍(autism spectrum disorder,ASD)[7]的儿童肠道中口腔来源的细菌水平增加。这些口腔微生物可能通过直接定植、血液循环和衍生代谢物等途径作用于肠道,干扰肠道的微生物稳态,引发全身低度慢性炎症和内毒素血症等[5,8]。Kato等[9]将牙龈卟啉单胞菌属(Porphyromonas gingivalis)注射到无菌小鼠的口腔中,一段时间后观察到小鼠的肠道微生物组成和氨基酸代谢途径发生改变。口腔微生物和肠道微生物之间的作用又称为口腔-肠道微生物轴[10]。与口腔和肠道微生物均相关的儿童全身系统性疾病包括肥胖[11]、1型糖尿病(type 1 diabetes,T1D)[12]、IBD、乳糜泻[13]、ASD、过敏性紫癜[14]、幼年特发性关节炎(juvenile idiopathic arthritis,JIA)[15]、哮喘、呼吸道感染[16]等。

1  儿童口腔和肠道微生物的建立与发展

目前大部分学者认同“人体微生物在出生后立即增加并且处于动态变化中”[17]这一观点。婴儿期口腔和肠道微生物的建立受到多种因素影响,包括胎龄、分娩方式和喂养方式等[17-18]。比如,母乳喂养的婴儿口腔中存在更多的链球菌属(Streptococcus),而配方奶喂养的婴儿口腔中存在更多的放线菌属(Actinomyces)和普雷沃菌属(Prevotella[19];停止母乳喂养后的婴儿肠道微生物中富含成年人肠道中普遍存在的梭菌属(Clostri-dium)、RoseburiaAnaerostipes[20]。随着时间的推移,儿童口腔和肠道微生物逐渐发育成熟,从相对简单发展到相对复杂,肠道更加表现出富含厚壁菌门(Firmicutes)和拟杆菌门(Bacteroidetes)的成熟肠道微生物特点。随着饮食方式的转变(由流质饮食到固体饮食)、抗生素或益生菌的使用、家庭生活方式以及地理位置等因素都会显著影响儿童口腔和肠道微生物的群落结构[21-22]。自牙萌出开始,口腔中便建立了多个不同的微生物栖息地,包括牙齿表面、口腔黏膜表面和唾液。口腔微生物随定植位点的改变而不断波动[22]。肠道微生物在儿童生命的前3年内达到相对稳定的成人模式,但仍遵循随年龄增长多样性持续增加的规律直至成年[23]

2  口腔和肠道微生物与儿童全身系统性疾病

2.1  肥胖

全球肥胖儿童数目与日俱增。世界卫生组织将肥胖定义为“对健康构成风险的脂肪异常或过度堆积”。儿童期的肥胖多会持续到成年,与多种疾病发作风险增加有关(如糖尿病、心血管疾病)[24]。微生物参与宿主的能量代谢,是影响儿童体重的重要因素之一[11]。与儿童肥胖相关的口腔、肠道微生物及其代谢产物见表1[25-29]

Ma等[25]发现:肥胖和正常体重儿童之间的口腔、肠道微生物具有显著差异,肥胖儿童口腔和肠道的厚壁菌门和拟杆菌门的比值(Firmicutes/Bacteroidetes,F/B)升高,肠道中瘤胃球菌科、克雷伯氏菌属等丰度升高。微生物多样性降低和F/B比值升高通常被认为是肥胖人群的微生物标志物[30]。因为厚壁菌门和拟杆菌门参与人体许多重要的代谢活动,包括发酵膳食纤维产生短链脂肪酸(short-chain fatty acid,SCFA),而SCFA能够与肠内分泌细胞、胰腺β细胞、脂肪细胞和免疫细胞表面的G蛋白偶联受体结合,参与人体细胞的碳水化合物代谢和脂肪酸代谢[31]。肠道中的瘤胃球菌属(Ruminococcus)是典型的发酵细菌,它能将人体无法消化的食物纤维分解为可吸收的SCFA并通过肠内吸收增加人体能量摄入[32]。Kitamoto等[8]发现口腔中的克雷伯氏菌可异位至肠道,加剧肠道炎症。Craig等[18]对2岁儿童的口腔及肠道微生物进行纵向研究发现,体重异常增长的儿童口腔微生物的多样性降低、F/B比值升高。这与肥胖儿童肠道微生物中普遍观察到的改变一致,但未发现2岁儿童体重异常增长与肠道微生物之间的相关性。这一结果提示口腔可能比肠道更早地建立与儿童体重异常改变相关的微生物特征并且诱导肠道微生物失调。肠道微生物失调后,通过2种途径促进儿童肥胖的发生和发展[11]:1)调节宿主的能量代谢过程,促进脂肪堆积;2)改变肠道上皮通透性,促使脂多糖(lipopolysaccharide,LPS)进入血液循环诱导宿主的慢性炎症。因此,口腔微生物诱导肠道微生物失调可能是导致儿童肥胖的重要原因。

Stefura等[33]基于16S rRNA测序技术分析肥胖成人口腔、粪便的微生物组成,发现与正常体重相比,肥胖成人口腔韦荣球菌属(Veillonella)、异普雷沃菌属升高,链球菌属降低;肥胖成人粪便中拟杆菌属(Bacteroides)、布劳特菌属升高,瘤胃球菌属、Faecalibacterium降低。结合表1可见:不同研究中正常体重组和肥胖组之间微生物多样性、F/B比值变化趋势以及差异细菌尚不一致,这可能归因于不同研究中受试者的年龄和地理位置等不同。口腔和肠道微生物与儿童肥胖之间的具体关系,尚需进一步研究。

2.2  T1D

T1D是一种自身免疫性疾病,其特征是由免疫细胞介导的胰腺β细胞破坏引起的胰岛素绝对缺乏,是儿童常见的慢性疾病之一[34]。T1D儿童的免疫失调可能与微生物有关[35],T1D儿童的口腔、肠道微生物及其代谢产物的变化见表2

T1D儿童的口腔生理机能发生改变,主要表现为唾液流速降低(口干症状)和口腔酸化等[34]。如表2所示,T1D儿童口腔微生物一致表现出链球菌属的相对丰度增加。这可能与T1D儿童口腔内的酸性环境有关。Kunath等[39]对T1D患者的唾液、粪便微生物进行多组学分析,发现T1D患者存在口腔和肠道微生物失调。在T1D患者口腔中,具有产酸耐酸性的变异链球菌(Streptococcus mutans)和耐酸性副血链球菌(Streptococcus parasanguinis)丰度增加,不耐酸的唾液链球菌和牙龈卟啉单胞菌减少。牙龈卟啉单胞菌通常与口腔、肠道的生态失调有关,但其无法在酸性条件下生长[40]。该研究还发现T1D患者肠道中的唾液链球菌丰度降低,链球菌属在口腔和肠道中的变化具有强相关性。这与T1D儿童的口腔、肠道微生物变化相似(表2)。从口腔中分离出的唾液链球菌菌株能够通过减少肠上皮细胞和免疫细胞中的白细胞介素-8和核因子κB分泌发挥抗炎、抑制病原体繁殖和促进肠道稳态等作用[41]。LPS是革兰阴性菌外膜的主要成分,也被认为是微生物、炎症和T1D之间的联系物。T1D儿童的肠道通透性增加,促使大量LPS进入体循环,结合以巨噬细胞为主的全身多种细胞的Toll样受体4释放炎症因子,引发全身炎症,最终导致胰腺β细胞受损、胰岛素抵抗和血糖控制不良[42-43]。此外,Wang等[12]发现:T1D儿童口咽部的葡萄球菌(Staphylococcus)与肠道的瘤胃球菌科呈显著正相关。这一变化可用于预测T1D的发病趋势。

目前T1D儿童口腔和肠道微生物的相关研究仍然有限,阐明口腔肠道微生物轴与免疫系统的复杂关系,将为T1D儿童的诊治提供新的思路和方法。

2.3  IBD

IBD是以胃肠道慢性炎症为特征的疾病,分为溃疡性结肠炎和克罗恩病。与成人相比,儿童发病时表现出更广泛的肠道炎症,如克罗恩病儿童通常表现为全结肠炎[6]。IBD的病因尚不明确,可能基于遗传易感性、环境、微生物失调和免疫系统缺陷等多种因素[44]。尽管具体结论尚不一致,但大部分IBD儿童的口腔和肠道微生物一致表现出微生物多样性指数下降(表3)。

除了胃肠道症状,IBD儿童常伴随多种口腔黏膜病变(如口腔溃疡)[49]表3中,与健康对照儿童相比,克罗恩病儿童舌苔中链球菌属丰度升高,韦荣球菌属、梭杆菌属等丰度降低。肠道中的韦荣球菌属和梭杆菌属表现出与口腔相反的变化趋势。肠道异位可能是IBD患者口腔中韦荣球菌属和梭杆菌属耗竭的原因。Atarashi等[50]将克罗恩病患者的唾液样本用管饲法移植到无菌小鼠口腔中,发现受试小鼠肠上皮固有层内的辅助性T细胞1表达显著升高,且小鼠肠道出现链球菌属、韦荣球菌属、梭杆菌属和克雷伯氏菌属的广泛定植,证实IBD患者的部分口腔微生物能够定植于肠道。在肠道微生物失调的状态下,肺炎克雷伯氏菌株KP-2H7还能激活肠内树突状细胞上的Toll样受体4,促使肠上皮细胞分泌白细胞介素-8,进一步加剧肠道炎症。Schirmer等[48]评估了405例溃疡性结肠炎儿童的肠道微生物,也有相似的发现。与轻症个体相比,症状更严重的溃疡性结肠炎儿童肠道中的咽峡炎链球菌、小韦荣菌和副流感嗜血杆菌等典型口腔细菌显著增加。Monleón-Getino等[45]认为:IBD儿童口腔和肠道中的部分差异菌可用于构建诊断模型,快速识别并监测IBD的发病及进展,如嗜热链球菌(Streptococcus thermophilus)、延长奈瑟菌(Neisseria elongate)、Ruminococcus torques等。尽管已经观察到IBD儿童的消化道微生物群落发生改变,但基于人类微生物组的复杂性,未来还需更长时间、更大样本的纵向研究来观察IBD儿童口腔、肠道微生物。

2.4  乳糜泻

乳糜泻是人类白细胞抗原-DQ2/DQ8阳性患者摄入不溶性蛋白质组分——麸质(包括谷蛋白和麦醇溶蛋白),引发的免疫介导的慢性肠病。乳糜泻患者在一生中的任何时候都可能丧失对麸质的耐受性,通常出现在儿童早期,合并患病率为1.4%[51]。乳糜泻的典型症状包括慢性腹泻、腹胀、口腔溃疡和釉质发育不全[52]。与儿童乳糜泻相关的口腔、肠道微生物及其代谢产物见表4

微生物群在乳糜泻中的作用研究大多数集中在肠道微生物,近年来口腔微生物开始引起人们的关注。由表4可见,乳糜泻儿童口腔中的韦荣球菌属、梭菌属等丰度下降,奈瑟球菌属丰度升高。Esposito等[13]对乳糜泻儿童的口咽、十二指肠微生物和奈瑟球菌属的系列研究证实:口腔和十二指肠中与乳糜泻相关微生物的特征是类似的,主要表现为属于奈瑟球菌属的变黄奈瑟球菌(Neisseria flavescens)显著升高。从口咽和十二指肠中分离的变黄奈瑟球菌能够激活树突状细胞表面的受体[57],在离体十二指肠黏膜外植体中诱发炎症反应[58]。奈瑟球菌属对乳糜泻的诊断敏感性和特异性分别达到100%和96.7%[13]。口腔和肠道微生物能够通过2个机制参与乳糜泻的发病和进展:1)增加肠道上皮通透性,加剧麦醇溶蛋白进入内皮组织;2)激活先天免疫系统,加剧或降低机体对麦醇溶蛋白的免疫应答。比如,口服双歧杆菌CECT 7347可以在麦醇溶蛋白诱导的肠病动物模型中减少肿瘤坏死因子-α等促炎因子的产生[59]。Fernandez-Feo等[60]发现:人体口腔中分离出的黏液罗斯菌(Rothia mucilaginosa)HOT-681和缓症链球菌HOT-677等菌株具有分解麦醇溶蛋白的能力。明确口腔菌株能否作为帮助胃肠道消化麸质的有益菌是未来的研究方向之一。

2.5  ASD

全球范围内,每100名儿童中大约有1名儿童患ASD[61]。ASD是一种因神经系统失调导致的广泛性发育障碍,核心症状是社会交往障碍、兴趣局限和重复刻板行为[62]。ASD儿童常常伴有便秘、胃部绞痛等胃肠功能障碍。有研究[63]发现微生物和大脑的相互作用与ASD等神经系统疾病相关。与儿童ASD相关的口腔、肠道微生物及其代谢产物见表5

口腔微生物在ASD发病中的潜在机制包括以下两种[68]:1)口腔病原菌进入血液循环,破坏血脑屏障,引发神经系统疾病;2)导致肠道微生物失调。肠道微生物影响大脑内神经递质的合成和识别、血脑屏障的构建、下丘脑-垂体-肾上腺轴的发育和成熟。基于ASD儿童口腔、肠道微生物的相关性网络分析结果显示:双歧杆菌属(Bifidobacterium)、埃希氏菌属(Escherichia)和梭菌属在肠道中的的变化与其在口腔中的变化呈正相关[7]。双歧杆菌在健康个体中普遍存在,能够产生丁酸盐。丁酸盐具有抗病原菌、抗炎以及免疫调节等作用,可以维持肠道稳态[69]。双歧杆菌属和埃希菌属产生的血清素、γ-氨基丁酸等神经递质能够作用于中枢神经系统,具有调节情绪的作用。梭菌则能够刺激色氨酸向血清素转化[70]。此外,ASD儿童肠道中的厚壁菌门和唾液中的绿弯菌纲(Chloroflexi)具有强相关性,唾液中的绿弯菌纲能否作为反映ASD患者肠道厚壁菌门变化的口腔生物标志物值得进一步探索。Qiao等[65]的研究中也发现ASD儿童的口腔和肠道微生物具有相似的变化趋势。然而,与健康对照相比,ASD儿童的口腔和肠道微生物在Alpha多样性和Beta多样性指数上未表现出明显差异(表5),可能是实验手段、样本量和疾病的严重程度等不同限制了结果的普遍性和统计学意义。

2.6  其他

除上述疾病外,口腔、肠道微生物也在儿童的呼吸系统疾病和免疫系统疾病中扮演着重要角色,包括呼吸道感染、哮喘、JIA和过敏性紫癜[14-16]等。

人体呼吸道的微生物群落由吸入空气和吞咽唾液中的微生物组成。口腔菌群失调能够引发呼吸道炎症和哮喘[71]。这可能与炎症环境下,气道上皮的完整性受损,呼吸道对过敏原的屏障功能遭到破坏有关[72]。动物实验[73]证明小鼠肠道中的早期微生物定植能够阻止卵清蛋白诱导的恒定自然杀伤细胞向肺中累积,预防由免疫系统介导的肺部疾病。JIA儿童的牙龈炎症明显重于健康儿童。研究[15]发现JIA儿童唾液中的促炎菌株细小杆菌属(Solobacterium)和难养杆菌属(Mogibacterium)丰度增加,而具有抗炎作用的枯草芽孢杆菌(Bacillus subtilis)丰度降低。枯草芽胞杆菌通过下调白细胞介素-8和上调诱导型一氧化氮合酶水平来降低炎症反应。在肠道中,JIA儿童的肠道微生物多样性和丰富度升高、F/B比值降低、Faecalibacterium等菌属丰度降低。口腔、肠道微生物失调可能是JIA儿童丧失维持免疫稳态能力的原因之一[71]。已知口腔和肠道微生物在炎症性疾病中发挥重要作用,未来对新发JIA初治患者进行前瞻性队列研究以阐明口腔和肠道微生物的致病作用是必要的。

3  小结与展望

对于儿童全身系统性疾病中口腔、肠道微生物组成变化及其关系,目前的研究主要以横断面为主。不同研究中的变异性(儿童的地理位置、饮食习惯)和规模差异(实验手段、疾病的严重程度和治疗)使研究结果具有较大的异质性,不足以建立儿童全身系统性疾病与微生物之间明确的因果关系。未来的研究应该倾向纵向研究,开展大规模、多中心和统一的数据收集及全面检测。此外,粪便作为研究肠道微生物的媒介与口腔样本相比较难获取,开发诊断和治疗疾病的口腔生物标志物有望作为评估儿童罹患全身系统性疾病风险的手段之一。

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基金资助

国家临床重点专科儿童口腔科建设项目(20230610)

云南省教育厅科学研究基金(2025J0168)

国家临床重点专科儿童口腔科建设项目临床科研青年基金项目(EYQ2024002)

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