This study investigates the formation mechanisms and suppression strategies for common metallurgical defects—including balling, porosity, powder adhesion, and spatter—in Ti6Al4V alloys fabricated by selective laser melting (SLM). A comprehensive numerical framework linking process parameters, molten pool dynamics, and defect evolution is developed to optimize linear and volumetric energy densities. This research further proposes actionable guidelines aimed at achieving high-quality manufacturing outcomes in SLM processes. A three-dimensional transient thermal-fluid flow model for SLM-processed Ti6Al4V powder was established to elucidate molten pool dynamics under controlled processing conditions. Utilizing dimensionless numbers to quantify dynamic behaviors, the simulations were optimized to accurately capture molten pool evolution. Defect formation mechanisms, particularly for balling and porosity, were thoroughly examined through integrated numerical modeling and experimental validation, emphasizing the critical impact of linear and volumetric energy densities. The analysis revealed that thermal convection predominantly governs heat transfer within the molten pool, driven primarily by evaporation recoil pressure, surface tension, and Marangoni shear stress. A reduction in energy density adversely affects molten pool fluidity, promoting porosity formation as molten metal solidifies into spherical shapes driven by surface tension. This resultant porosity significantly deteriorates the mechanical properties of fabricated parts, underscoring the necessity for meticulous control over energy density. Optimizing key processing parameters, such as laser power, scanning speed, and scanning spacing, enables the formation of high-quality components. The proposed “process parameters‒molten pool characteristics‒forming quality” analytical framework provides robust guidance for parameter optimization. Application of this framework effectively mitigates metallurgical defects, thereby enhancing the density and mechanical performance of parts manufactured through SLM.
KorkmazM E, GuptaM K, RobakG,et al.Development of lattice structure with selective laser melting process:A state of the art on properties,future trends and challenges[J].Journal of Manufacturing Processes,2022,81:1040‒1063. doi:10.1016/j.jmapro.2022.07.051
[2]
GunasekaranJ, SevvelP, John SolomonI.Metallic materials fabrication by selective laser melting:A review[J].Materials Today:Proceedings,2021,37:252‒256. doi:10.1016/j.matpr.2020.05.162
[3]
KhorasaniA, GibsonI, AwanU S,et al.The effect of SLM process parameters on density,hardness,tensile strength and surface quality of Ti6Al4V[J].Additive Manufacturing,2019,25:176‒186. doi:10.1016/j.addma.2018.09.002
[4]
ZhangJinliang, SongBo, WeiQingsong,et al.A review of selective laser melting of aluminum alloys:Processing,microstructure,property and developing trends[J].Journal of Materials Science & Technology,2019,35(2):270‒284. doi:10.1016/j.jmst.2018.09.004
[5]
SinglaA K, BanerjeeM, SharmaA,et al.Selective laser me-lting of Ti6Al4V alloy:Process parameters,defects and post-treatments[J].Journal of Manufacturing Processes,2021,64:161‒187. doi:10.1016/j.jmapro.2021.01.009
[6]
ZhaoXiaohao, ZuoZhenbo, HanZhiyu,et al.A review on powder titanium alloy 3D printing technology[J].Materials Reports,2016,30(23):121‒127. doi:10.11896/j.issn.1005-023X.2016.23.018
TangChaolan, ZhangWeixiang, ChenZhiru,et al.Simple descriptions of preparation technology of titanium alloy po-wder for 3D printing[J].Journal of Guangdong University of Technology,2019,36(3):91‒98.
TofailS A M, KoumoulosE P, BandyopadhyayA,et al.Additive manufacturing:Scientific and technological challen-ges,market uptake and opportunities[J].Materials Today,2018,21(1):22‒37. doi:10.1016/j.mattod.2017.07.001
[11]
YanWentao, GeWenjun, QianYa,et al.Multi-physics modeling of single/multiple-track defect mechanisms in electron beam selective melting[J].Acta Materialia,2017,134(1):324‒333. doi:10.1016/j.actamat.2017.05.061
[12]
XieYinkai.Numerical simulation of temperature field and flow field in laser selective melting of Ti6Al4V[D].Beijing:Beijing University of Technology,2018.
[13]
谢印开.激光选区熔化Ti6Al4V温度场与流场的数值模拟[D].北京:北京工业大学,2018.
[14]
YeWeijuan.Numerical simulation of temperature field and morphology evolution of molten pool during laser selective melting[D].Xi'an:Xi'an University of Technology,2019.
[15]
叶唯娟.激光选区熔化过程中熔池温度场及形貌演化的数值模拟[D].西安:西安理工大学,2019.
[16]
HeQiyang, XiaHuanxiong, LiuJianhua,et al.Modeling and numerical studies of selective laser melting:Multiphase fl-ow,solidification and heat transfer[J].Materials & Design,2020,196:109115. doi:10.1016/j.matdes.2020.109115
[17]
WangZekun, YanWentao, LiuW K,et al.Powder-scale multi-physics modeling of multi-layer multi-track selective laser melting with sharp interface capturing method[J].Computational Mechanics,2019,63(4):649661. doi:10.1007/s00466-018-1614-5
[18]
KhairallahS A, AndersonA T, RubenchikA,et al.Laser powder-bed fusion additive manufacturing:Physics of complex melt flow and formation mechanisms of pores,spatter,and denudation zones[J].Acta Materialia,2016,108:36‒45. doi:10.1016/j.actamat.2016.02.014
[19]
LeeY S, ZhangW.Mesoscopic simulation of heat transfer and fluid flow in laser powder bed additive manufacturing[C]//Proceedings of the Twenty‒Sixth Annual International Solid Freeform Fabrication.Austin:University of Texas at Austin,2015:1154‒1165. doi:10.1016/j.addma.2016.05.003
[20]
XiaMujian, GuDongdong, YuGuanqun,et al.Porosity evolution and its thermodynamic mechanism of randomly pa-cked powder-bed during selective laser melting of Inconel 718 alloy[J].International Journal of Machine Tools and Manufacture,2017,116:96‒106. doi:10.1016/j.ijmachtools.2017.01.005
[21]
CaoLiu.Mesoscopic-scale numerical simulation including the influence of process parameters on SLM single-layer multi-pass formation[J].Metallurgical and Materials Transactions A,2020,51(8):4130‒4145. doi:10.1007/s11661-020-05831-z
[22]
TangC, TanJ L, WongC H.A numerical investigation on the physical mechanisms of single track defects in selective laser melting[J].International Journal of Heat and Ma-ss Transfer,2018,126(B):957‒968. doi:10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2018.06.073
[23]
YuanWeihao, ChenHui, WeiQingsong.The role of recoil pressure in thermodynamic behaviors of molten pool during selective laser melting[J].Journal of Mechanical Engineering,2020,56(7):213‒219. doi:10.3901/jme.2020.07.213
HuXue.Numerical simulation of molten pool flow in laser powder-filled welding[D].Harbin:Harbin Institute of Te-chnology,2016.
[26]
胡雪.激光填粉焊接熔池流动数值模拟[D].哈尔滨:哈尔滨工业大学,2016.
[27]
LiRisheng.Study on flow and heat transfer characteristics of GTAW molten pool of stainless steel[D].Taiyuan:Taiyuan University of Science and Technology,2014.
[28]
李日升.不锈钢GTAW熔池流动换热特性研究[D].太原:太原科技大学,2014.
[29]
QiaoChenrong.Numerical simulation of variable polarity plasma arc welding of aluminum alloy based on Fluent[D].Hohhot:Inner Mongolia University of Technology,2018.
ChiMin.Numerical simulation and experimental study on metal laser selective melting additive manufacturing[D].Shanghai:East China University of Science and Technology,2019.
[32]
池敏.金属激光选区熔化增材制造数值模拟与实验研究[D].上海:华东理工大学,2019.
[33]
PanLu, ZhangChenglin, JiangHua,et al.Influence and optimization of forming process parameters on relative density of 316L stainless steel prepared by selective laser melt-ing[J].Forging & Stamping Technology,2019,44(11):103‒109.
ChuFuzhong, ZhangXi, HuangWenjing,et al.The formation mechanism and effect on mechanical properties of defects of aluminum alloy by selective laser melting:A revi-ew[J].Materials Reports,2021,35(11):11110‒11118.
GunenthiramV, PeyreP, SchneiderM,et al.Analysis of laser-melt pool-powder bed interaction during the selective laser melting of a stainless steel[J].Journal of Laser Applications,2017,29(2):022303. doi:10.2351/1.4983259
[38]
Taheri AndaniM, DehghaniR, Karamooz‒RavariM R,et al.Spatter formation in selective laser melting process using multi-laser technology[J].Materials & Design,2017,131:460‒469. doi:10.1016/j.matdes.2017.06.040
[39]
WuY C, SanC H, ChangC H,et al.Numerical modeling of melt-pool behavior in selective laser melting with random powder distribution and experimental validation[J].Journal of Materials Processing Technology,2018,254:72‒78. doi:10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2017.11.032