1.Key Laboratory of Land Surface Pattern and Simulation, Institute of Geographic Sciences and Natural Resources Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
2.College of Resources and Environment, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
3.Key Laboratory of Mountain Hazards and Surface Process, Institute of Mountain Hazards and Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences and Ministry of Water Resources, Chengdu 610041, China
Objective Moraine-dammed glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs) occur with increasing frequency on the Qinghai‒Tibet Plateau in the context of global warming, posing serious threats to downstream settlements and hydraulic infrastructure. Accurately determining the critical conditions that trigger GLOFs and quantitatively evaluating the stability of moraine-dammed lakes remains an urgent scientific challenge. Methods This study developed a stability assessment model grounded in the principles of physics and soil mechanics, comprehensively incorporating key processes such as lake expansion, landslide-induced surge generation and propagation, overtopping erosion, and piping erosion. The framework enabled the analysis of complex, multi-scale, and multi-process interactions governing lake stability. Within this model, the temporal variation in lake water storage was simulated using a water balance equation that accounted for precipitation, runoff, glacier meltwater, snowmelt, and infiltration. Then, based on the principles of energy conservation and gravitational similarity, the model quantified the surge characteristics generated by rigid and granular landslides entering the lake and simulated the attenuation of surge amplitude during propagation using empirical relationships derived from three-dimensional flume experiments. Finally, the critical hydraulic heads associated with overtopping and piping failures were derived. The critical overtopping condition was determined by calculating the threshold shear stress required to initiate the motion of coarse particles on the downstream dam slope. At the same time, the Kenney‒Lau (K‒L) method was applied to evaluate the internal stability of the moraine’s granular structure and determine the critical hydraulic gradient and corresponding head for piping failure. A lake stability coefficient was defined as the ratio of the actual hydraulic head at the dam front to the critical failure head by integrating these components, enabling a quantitative assessment of lake stability and precise identification of the dominant failure mechanism. Results and Discussion The model was validated through its application to Jialong Co, a moraine-dammed lake in Tibet that experienced a historical outburst in 2002. The results showed that between 1988 and 2018, the stability coefficients for overtopping () and piping () increased by 330% and 109%, respectively, indicating a significant decline in the overall stability of the lake. The critical hydraulic heads for overtopping and piping failures were calculated to be 20.17 m and 17.15 m, respectively. The sensitivity analysis revealed that lake stability was negatively correlated with mean water depth, landslide volume, and upstream dam slope gradient, while it was positively correlated with dam height. Rigid landslides of equivalent volume caused a greater reduction in stability compared to granular landslides. The critical volume of granular landslides required to trigger overtopping was approximately one order of magnitude greater than that of rigid landslides. This model addressed the limitations of earlier studies that failed to establish an integrated quantitative framework encompassing multi-scale physical processes. The model enhanced understanding of how climate change-induced factors, including glacier retreat and more frequent landslides, affected GLOF susceptibility by differentiating landslide types and quantitatively linking failure mechanisms to measurable parameters. The model results for Jialong Co further demonstrated that, due to the limited potential for lake expansion, piping exerted a negligible influence on its future stability, confirming the model’s reliability in identifying the dominant failure mechanism. Conclusions The physically based stability assessment model developed in this study provides a robust and systematic analytical framework for quantitatively evaluating the outburst risk of moraine-dammed lakes across the Qinghai‒Tibet Plateau. The model not only facilitates a precise quantitative assessment of lake stability but also clarifies the dominant outburst mechanisms, providing essential scientific guidance for formulating targeted disaster prevention and mitigation strategies under changing climatic conditions.
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