Discrete Element Analysis About the Critical State Properties of Calcareous Sand with Considering the Influence of Particle Shape and Medium Principal Stress
Objective This study addresses the mechanical challenges associated with calcareous sand in reef construction in the South China Sea. Using the discrete element method, the effects of particle shape and intermediate principal stress on the critical state behavior of calcareous sand are systemically investigated. The objective is to elucidate the underlying deformation and failure mechanisms, providing scientific guidance for foundation design and significant engineering value. Methods The PFC3D (Particle Flow Code in 3-Dimension) discrete element method was employed to generate crushable particle models with various shapes representative of calcareous sand. Drained true triaxial compression simulations were conducted to evaluate the effects of particle shape and intermediate principal stress on critical state characteristics. Macroscopic properties, such as shear strength, volumetric strain, and critical state line distribution were evaluated. At the microscale, key descriptors such as coordination number, redundancy ratio, and fabric anisotropy were analyzed to characterize the evolving contact network and internal structure. The combined macro-micro analysis elucidates the mechanisms by which particle morphology and intermediate principal stress govern the critical state response of calcareous sand. Results and Discussion The effects of particle shape and angularity on granular material properties were investigated, focusing on stress‒strain relationships, volumetric deformation, critical state lines, and micromechanical responses. Four particle types with increasing angularity—particle a(α = 1.192), b(α = 1.255), c(α = 1.319), and d(α = 1.360)—were analyzed under varying confining pressures (100, 200, 300, 400, and 600 kPa) and intermediate principal stress ratios (b-values: 0, 0.2, 0.4, 0.8). Analysis of the peak stress ratio ((q/p)max) revealed a significant dependence on particle angularity. At a confining pressure of 100 kPa, (q/p)max increased from 1.58 for particle a to 1.76 for particle d. Each increment of 0.068 in angularity led to an average increase of 0.18 in (q/p)max. Variations in the relationship between volumetric strain and major principal strain were also observed. Particle a demonstrated a peak dilatancy rate of 0.39 and a maximum volumetric expansion of 5.81%, whereas particle d had a peak dilatancy rate of 0.70 and a volumetric expansion of 12.71%. Each increase of 0.068 in angularity corresponded to an average increase of approximately 6.90% in volumetric expansion. Critical state line parameters, including the slope (Mcs) and intercept (eГ), were also influenced by particle shape and b-value. For b = 0.8, Mcs increased from 0.923 for particle a to 1.069 for particle d, corresponding to an approximate increase of 0.03 for every 0.068 increase in Mcs Similarly, eГ increased from 1.19848 for particle a to 1.374 67 for particle d, with an average increase of 0.02 per 0.068 increase in angularity. Micromechanical responses demonstrated that the average coordination number (Zcs) was notably affected by particle shape at both 100 kPa and 400 kPa confining pressures. At 100 kPa, Zcs decreased from 3.25 for particle a to 2.95 for particle d. At 400 kPa, these values decreased from 4.10 for particle a to 3.75 for particle d. Each increase of 0.068 in angularity led to a decrease of approximately 0.075 in Zcs at 100 kPa and 0.085 at 400 kPa. The redundancy ratio (Rf) was also influenced by particle shape, with particle a exhibiting a higher redundancy ratio than that of particle d. An increase of 0.068 in angularity resulted in an average decrease of approximately 0.02 in Rf. Additionally, as the void ratio decreased from 0.90 at ecs= 0.2 to 0.75 at ecs =0.4, the redundancy ratio decreased. The coefficients of normal contact anisotropy (ac) and normal contact force anisotropy (an ) varied with particle shape. For b = 0, particle a had an ac of 0.25 and an an of 0.35, while particle d had an ac of 0.22 and an an of 0.42. Each increase of 0.068 in angularity resulted in a decrease of approximately 0.007 in ac and an increase of about 0.01 in an. These findings underscore the significant impact of particle shape and angularity on both macroscopic and micromechanical responses, providing new insights into granular material behavior. Conclusions The results indicate that increasing particle angularity enhances peak shear strength and volumetric expansion, while an increase in the intermediate principal stress coefficient (b-value) reduces these responses. With increasing particle angularity, the slope of the critical state line in q-p space and the intercept in the e-p space both increase, with varying trends depending on the b-value. Micromechanical analysis shows that higher particle angularity leads to increased normal contact force anisotropy and a decrease in the average coordination number. Conversely, increasing the b-value reduces anisotropy and promotes higher coordination numbers. A strong linear relationship exists between void ratio and redundancy ratio, with the slope of this relationship decreasing as particle angularity increases. Furthermore, the correlation among void ratio, mean principal stress, and redundancy ratio strengthens with increasing angularity, as evidenced by upward shift of the fitted relationship surface in three-dimensional space.
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