Approximate Analytical Solution of Rayleigh-Plesset Equation and Sensitivity Analysis of Cavitation Bubbles for Environmental Parameters at High Altitudes
Objective A few studies have shown that several environmental factors at high altitudes affect cavitation. However, a method that can systematically study the factors and mechanisms of cavitation at high altitudes is unavailable. Cavitation can be described as the growth and collapse of cavitation bubbles. Therefore, it is necessary to study the effect of environmental factors on cavitation bubbles at high altitudes. Methods Firstly, the approximate analytical solution of the modified Rayleigh‒Plesset equation, containing surface tension, non-condensable gas (NCG), and interaction forces of multi-bubbles, was derived by employing the homotopy analysis method (HAM) for the first time. The scope of application of this solution, which ignored fluid viscosity and thermodynamic effects, was also provided. Secondly, by comparing the results of this approximate analytical solution with experimental data and with existing analytical solutions for single bubbles in the literature, and by calculating the maximum absolute error (Emax), mean absolute error (Ema), and Pearson correlation coefficient (PCC), the validity of this solution was verified. Thirdly, the results of the approximate analytical solution for multi-bubbles were also compared with both numerical calculations by CFD and results reported in the literature. Fourthly, based on this approximate analytical solution, the effects of environmental parameters at high altitudes on cavitation bubbles were systematically analyzed. Instead of traditional one-at-a-time sensitivity analysis (OSA), the effect degrees of these parameters were also evaluated using self-defined parametric sensitivity coefficients (PSC), which indicate the effects of high altitude. Finally, based on the results of the parametric sensitivity analysis of environmental parameters at high altitudes, several engineering suggestions were proposed to prevent or reduce cavitation in hydraulic equipment operating at high altitudes. Results and Discussions For a single bubble, when the adiabatic exponent was 4/3, the PCC was 0.98, the Emax was 2.06×10-4 m, and the Ema was 6.64×10-5 m; when the adiabatic exponent was 5/3, the PCC was 0.98, the Emax was 3.27×10-4 m, and the Ema was 9.81×10-5 m. Both comparisons showed that the approximate analytical solution is valid because the P-value is less than 0.001. To avoid accidental and systematic errors, the approximate analytical solution was also normalized, and the results were compared with experimental data from the EPFL laboratory. The PCC was 0.97, the Emax was 0.04, and the Ema was 0.03. For multiple bubbles, the results of the approximate analytical solution and numerical calculations were compared, yielding a PCC of 0.98. Using this approximate analytical solution, a systematic analysis of the trends and degrees of the effects of environmental parameters on bubble cavitation at high altitudes was conducted. Ambient pressure has the greatest effect on the collapse of cavitation bubbles and is negatively correlated with both collapse time and minimum bubble radius, with maximal PSC values of 10.8% for collapse time and 5.7% for minimum radius. The absolute values of PSC, representing the effect degrees of the number of bubbles, distance between bubbles, initial radius of bubble collapse, liquid temperature, saturation vapor pressure, liquid density, and surface tension on collapse time, are -3.70%, -3.10%, 2.90%, 0.82%, -0.60%, 0.067%, and 0.023%, respectively, in descending order. The absolute values of PSC, representing the effect degrees of the initial radius of bubble collapse, liquid temperature, saturation vapor pressure, liquid density, surface tension, number of bubbles, and distance between bubbles on minimum radius, are 2.5%, 0.6%, -0.3%, -2.1×10-5, -6.6×10-7, 0, and 0, respectively, in descending order. When altitude increases from 0 km to 4 km, considering all the above environmental parameters, the collapse time of bubbles increases by 14%, and the minimum radius increases by 53%. This explains a phenomenon previously observed in numerical calculations: as altitude increases, the pressure during bubble collapse decreases, and the influence range on the hydrofoil increases significantly. Based on the approximate analytical solution and the sensitivity analysis of environmental parameters, suggestions for preventing or reducing cavitation erosion include adjusting parameters that affect bubble cavitation, such as reducing gas content in the fluid and correcting existing empirical parameters in hydro-turbine design. Conclusions Because the approximate analytical solution derived using HAM is valid for both single and multiple bubbles, further analysis of the mechanisms by which environmental parameters affect cavitation is supported. Using this approximate analytical solution and the self-defined parametric sensitivity coefficients, the effects of these parameters at high altitudes on cavitation bubbles can be systematically analyzed, providing a simple, intuitive, and comprehensive method for the design, operation, and maintenance of hydraulic equipment at high altitudes.
Objective A few studies have shown that several environmental factors at high altitudes affect cavitation. However, a method that can systematically study the factors and mechanisms of cavitation at high altitudes is unavailable. Cavitation can be described as the growth and collapse of cavitation bubbles. Therefore, it is necessary to study the effect of environmental factors on cavitation bubbles at high altitudes.
Methods Firstly, the approximate analytical solution of the modified Rayleigh–Plesset equation, containing surface tension, non-condensable gas (NCG), and interaction forces of multi-bubbles, was derived by employing the homotopy analysis method (HAM) for the first time. The scope of application of this solution, which ignored fluid viscosity and thermodynamic effects, was also provided. Secondly, by comparing the results of this approximate analytical solution with experimental data and with existing analytical solutions for single bubbles in the literature, and by calculating the maximum absolute error (MAXE), mean absolute error (MAE), and Pearson correlation coefficient (PCC), the validity of this solution was verified. Thirdly, the results of the approximate analytical solution for multi-bubbles were also compared with both numerical calculations by CFD and results reported in the literature. Fourthly, based on this approximate analytical solution, the effects of environmental parameters at high altitudes on cavitation bubbles were systematically analyzed. Instead of traditional one-at-a-time sensitivity analysis (OSA), the effect degrees of these parameters were also evaluated using self-defined parametric sensitivity coefficients (PSC), which indicate the effects of high altitude. Finally, based on the results of the parametric sensitivity analysis of environmental parameters at high altitudes, several engineering suggestions were proposed to prevent or reduce cavitation in hydraulic equipment operating at high altitudes.
Results and Discussions For a single bubble, when the adiabatic exponent was 4/3, the PCC was 0.98, the MAXE was 2.06×10-4 m, and the MAE was 6.64×10-5 m; when the adiabatic exponent was 5/3, the PCC was 0.98, the MAXE was 3.27×10-4 m, and the MAE was 9.81×10-5 m. Both comparisons showed that the approximate analytical solution is valid because the P-value is less than 0.001. To avoid accidental and systematic errors, the approximate analytical solution was also normalized, and the results were compared with experimental data from the EPFL laboratory. The PCC was 0.97, the MAXE was 0.04, and the MAE was 0.03. For multiple bubbles, the results of the approximate analytical solution and numerical calculations were compared, yielding a PCC of 0.98. Using this approximate analytical solution, a systematic analysis of the trends and degrees of the effects of environmental parameters on bubble cavitation at high altitudes was conducted. Ambient pressure has the greatest effect on the collapse of cavitation bubbles and is negatively correlated with both collapse time and minimum bubble radius, with maximal PSC values of 10.8% for collapse time and 5.7% for minimum radius. The absolute values of PSC, representing the effect degrees of the number of bubbles, distance between bubbles, initial radius of bubble collapse, liquid temperature, saturation vapor pressure, liquid density, and surface tension on collapse time, are -3.7%, -3.1%, 2.9%, 0.82%, -0.6%, 0.067%, and 0.023%, respectively, in descending order. The absolute values of PSC, representing the effect degrees of the initial radius of bubble collapse, liquid temperature, saturation vapor pressure, liquid density, surface tension, number of bubbles, and distance between bubbles on minimum radius, are 2.5%, 0.6%, -0.3%, -2.1×10-5, -6.6×10-7, 0%, and 0%, respectively, in descending order. When altitude increases from 0 km to 4 km, considering all the above environmental parameters, the collapse time of bubbles increases by 14%, and the minimum radius increases by 53%. This explains a phenomenon previously observed in numerical calculations: as altitude increases, the pressure during bubble collapse decreases, and the influence range on the hydrofoil increases significantly. Based on the approximate analytical solution and the sensitivity analysis of environmental parameters, suggestions for preventing or reducing cavitation erosion include adjusting parameters that affect bubble cavitation, such as reducing gas content in the fluid and correcting existing empirical parameters in hydro-turbine design.
Conclusions Because the approximate analytical solution derived using HAM is valid for both single and multiple bubbles, further analysis of the mechanisms by which environmental parameters affect cavitation is supported. Using this approximate analytical solution and the self-defined parametric sensitivity coefficients, the effects of these parameters at high altitudes on cavitation bubbles can be systematically analyzed, providing a simple, intuitive, and comprehensive method for the design, operation, and maintenance of hydraulic equipment at high altitudes.
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