Objective During flood events, wood scattered near river channels is subjected to flowing water and transported downstream. During this process, structures and locations such as bridges, the outer banks of river bends, and channel constrictions are impacted by large wood, which can accumulate and form logjams. The formation of these logjams alters local flow conditions, resulting in increased upstream water levels and enhanced sediment deposition. These conditions directly affect the stability and safety of bridges and dams. Currently, most numerical models primarily consider the coupling of two-dimensional flow fields with two-dimensional large wood motion models (2D‒2D) or three-dimensional flow fields with two-dimensional large wood motion models (3D‒2D). However, two-dimensional large wood motion models cannot adequately represent the vertical structure of logjams, effectively limiting the simulation of large wood movement and accumulation to shallow-water or low-Froude-number conditions. This modeling approach primarily applies to rivers with large width-to-depth ratios in plain regions. However, such rivers generally experience fewer large wood blockage problems. In contrast, mountainous rivers characterized by small width-to-depth ratios and pronounced channel bends present a greater risk of large wood blockage and therefore require primary consideration. Therefore, most existing numerical models exhibit significant limitations that can lead to the underestimation of the impacts associated with large wood blockage hazards. A two-way coupled numerical model integrating three-dimensional flow fields and three-dimensional large wood motion (3D‒3D) is required to enhance the capability of numerical models to accurately reproduce large wood movement and accumulation processes. Methods The three-dimensional flow field and three-dimensional large wood motion two-way coupling numerical model (3D‒3D) presented in this study was based on the finite volume method and employed a second-order nonlinear k-ε model for turbulence calculations. Each piece of large wood was constructed from multiple rigidly connected discrete particles, providing improved collision calculation performance and greater flexibility. The two-way coupling algorithm reflected the influence of large wood on water flow, enabling the analysis of backwater rise caused by logjams. The drag force acting on the large wood was represented by the linear superposition of the forces exerted by the discrete particles constituting the large wood on the water flow. The control equation for large wood considered the combined effects of drag force, water flow acceleration, gravity, virtual mass force, buoyancy, particle collisions, and bed interaction, closely approximating the actual conditions governing large wood dynamics. Results and Discussions The 3D‒3D motion and accumulation model was utilized to simulate the significantly large wood transport and accumulation phenomena in the Xihe River of Sanjiang Town during the Wenchuan "8·20" heavy rainfall-induced mountain torrent and debris flow event. Numerical simulation results showed that the transport distance of large wood under different recruitment scenarios exhibited similar distribution patterns within the river channel. Specifically, large wood distributed within the 100~200 m and 400~500 m sections accounted for 14%~31% and 51%~71% of the total recruitment, respectively. However, the results obtained under larger recruitment conditions were statistically more significant. The findings confirmed that large wood length was only one of several influencing factors, indicating that future studies should investigate additional variables that can affect large wood transport. When large wood recruitment exceeded 200 pieces, the influence of large wood length on transport distance was not significant. The submergence state of large wood varied over time, and a statistical description was obtained using the time-averaged submergence state. Although changes in large wood length affected the number and proportion of submerged wood, the correlation was not significant, indicating that submergence behavior was more strongly influenced by external flow conditions. When the length of the large wood exceeded 3.6 m, the submergence rate decreased as recruitment increased. In the study reach of the Xihe River in Sanjiang Town, no bridge piers were present. Therefore, the study did not consider the direct effects of bridge piers on large wood transport and accumulation. Large wood accumulation tended to occur at channel constrictions and along the outer banks of large river bends, with a stronger tendency toward the latter under the examined conditions. Logjams at channel constrictions were likely caused by large wood being blocked by upstream obstacles under flowing water conditions, eventually reaching a relatively stable state. At larger bends, logjams were more likely influenced by centrifugal forces or secondary flows, causing large wood to deposit along the riverbank or become compressed, increasing friction with the riverbank. Upstream of the logjams, the water depth was found to be 2~3 cm greater than under conditions without logjams. The backwater rise phenomenon can be related to the three-dimensional accumulation pattern and the number of large wood pieces within the logjam, requiring further investigation. At the upstream channel constriction, the numbers of large wood pieces forming logjams from the shortest to the longest length categories were 47, 50, and 52, respectively. Longer pieces of large wood were more likely to intercept subsequent pieces, expanding the accumulation area. Conclusions The 3D‒3D model demonstrated strong capability in reproducing the movement and accumulation of large wood. Simulations of large wood distribution, submergence, and accumulation in the Xihe River segment of Sanjiang Town revealed the evolutionary characteristics of large wood transport during mountain torrent events. The transport of large wood was not entirely confined to the vicinity of the water-flow interface but exhibited distinct three-dimensional movement characteristics over time. Large wood primarily accumulated near channel constrictions and major bends, where logjams were formed. These logjams exhibited a pronounced three-dimensional structure and caused a measurable increase in backwater levels.
GurnellA, EnglandJ, Burgess‒GambleL.Trees and wood:Working with natural river processes[J].Water and Environment Journal,2019,33(3):342‒352. doi:10.1111/wej.12426
[2]
WohlE, BledsoeB P, FauschK D,et al.Management of large wood in streams:An overview and proposed framework for hazard evaluation[J].JAWRA Journal of the American Water Resources Association,2016,52(2):315‒335. doi:10.1111/1752-1688.12388
[3]
SchmockerL, HagerW H.Probability of drift blockage at bridge decks[J].Journal of Hydraulic Engineering,2011,137(4):470‒479. doi:10.1061/(asce)hy.1943-7900.0000319
[4]
Ruiz‒VillanuevaV, Díez‒HerreroA, BodoqueJ M,et al.Large wood in rivers and its influence on flood hazard[J].Cuadernos de Investigación Geográfica,2014,40(1):229‒246. doi:10.18172/cig.2523
[5]
SchalkoI, SchmockerL, WeitbrechtV,et al.Backwater rise due to large wood accumulations[J].Journal of Hydraulic Engineering,2018,144(9):04018056. doi:10.1061/(asce)hy.1943-7900.0001501
[6]
OkamotoT, TakebayashiH, SanjouM,et al.Log jam formation at bridges and the effect on floodplain flow:A flume experiment[J].Journal of Flood Risk Management,2020,13(S1):e12562. doi:10.1111/jfr3.12562
[7]
ChenJiangang, WangDaozheng, ZhaoWanyu,et al.Laboratory study on the characteristics of large wood and debris flow processes at slit-check dams[J].Landslides,2020,17(7):1703‒1711. doi:10.1007/s10346-020-01409-3
[8]
WangDaozheng, WangXingang, ChenXiaoqing,et al.Analysis of factors influencing the large wood transport and block-outburst in debris flow based on physical model experiment[J].Geomorphology,2022,398:108054. doi:10.1016/j.geomorph.2021.108054
[9]
De‒CiccoP N, ParisE, SolariL,et al.Bridge pier shape influence on wood accumulation:Outcomes from flume experiments and numerical modelling[J].Journal of Flood Risk Management,2020,13(2):e12599. doi:10.1111/jfr3.12599
[10]
Ruiz‒VillanuevaV, MazzoranaB, BladéE,et al.Characterization of wood-laden flows in rivers[J].Earth Surface Processes and Landforms,2019,44(9):1694‒1709. doi:10.1002/esp.4603
[11]
WyssA, SchalkoI, WeitbrechtV.Field study on wood accumulation at a bridge pier[J].Water,2021,13(18):2475. doi:10.3390/w13182475
[12]
KramerN, WohlE.Rules of the road:A qualitative and quantitative synthesis of large wood transport through drainage networks[J].Geomorphology,2017,279:74‒97. doi:10.1016/j.geomorph.2016.08.026
[13]
MazzoranaB, HüblJ, ZischgA,et al.Modelling woody material transport and deposition in alpine rivers[J].Natural Hazards,2011,56(2):425‒449. doi:10.1007/s11069-009-9492-y
[14]
PaniciD.An experimental and numerical approach to modeling large wood displacement in rivers[J].Water Resources Research,2021,57(7):e2021WR029860. doi:10.1029/2021wr029860
[15]
PersiE, PetacciaG, SibillaS,et al.A one-way coupled hydrodynamic advection-diffusion model to simulate congested large wood transport[J].Hydrology,2021,8(1):21. doi:10.3390/hydrology8010021
[16]
Ruiz‒VillanuevaV, BladéE, Sánchez‒JunyM,et al.Two-dimensional numerical modeling of wood transport[J].Journal of Hydroinformatics,2014,16(5):1077‒1096. doi:10.2166/hydro.2014.026
[17]
KangT, KimuraI.Computational modeling for large wood dynamics with root wad and anisotropic bed friction in shallow flows[J].Advances in Water Resources,2018,121:419‒431. doi:10.1016/j.advwatres.2018.09.006
[18]
KangT, KimuraI, ShimizuY.Numerical simulation of large wood deposition patterns and responses of bed morphology in a braided river using large wood dynamics model[J].Earth Surface Processes and Landforms,2020,45(4):962‒977. doi:10.1002/esp.4789
[19]
MaJianxin, ShiXi, XieXiaogang,et al.Study on influence of FLUENT rigid vegetation diameter on water flow characteristics of open channel[J].Water Resources and Power,2023,41(9):116‒119.
LiuHanyue, RenChunping, HuangXuzhong.Numerical study of two-phase flow based on OpenFOAM for dynamic characteristics of deflecting flow of a certain spillway[J].Water Resources and Power,2024,42(1):115‒119.
ShaheedR, MohammadianA, Kheirkhah GildehH.A comparison of standard k-ε and realizable k-ε turbulence models in curved and confluent channels[J].Environmental Fluid Mechanics,2019,19(2):543‒568. doi:10.1007/s10652-018-9637-1
[24]
KimuraI, HosodaT.A non-linear k-ε model with realizability for prediction of flows around bluff bodies[J].International Journal for Numerical Methods in Fluids,2003,42(8):813‒837. doi:10.1002/fld.540
[25]
AliS, HosodaT, KimuraI.A non-linear k-.EPSILON.Model to predict the spatial change of turbulent structures in large scale vortices[J].Journal of Applied Mechanics,2007,10:723‒732. doi:10.2208/journalam.10.723
[26]
SchillerL, NaumannA.A drag coefficient correlation[J].Zeits-chrift des Vereins Deutscher Ingenieure,1935,77:318‒320.
[27]
KimuraI, KangT, KatoK.3D‒3D computations on submerged-driftwood motions in water flows with large wood density around driftwood capture facility[J].Water,2021,13(10):1406. doi:10.3390/w13101406
[28]
KimuraI, KitazonoK.Effects of the driftwood Richardson number and applicability of a 3D‒2D model to heavy wood jamming around obstacles[J].Environmental Fluid Mechanics,2020,20(3):503‒525. doi:10.1007/s10652-019-09709-6
[29]
FollettE, SchalkoI, NepfH.Momentum and energy predict the backwater rise generated by a large wood jam[J].Geophysical Research Letters,2020,47(17):e2020GL089346. doi:10.1029/2020gl089346
[30]
ChenJiangang, FeiGaogao, WangXi'an,et al.Advances on disaster effects of drift wood in flash flood debris flows[J].Advances in Science and Technology of Water Resources,2022,42(3):104‒111. doi:10.3880/j.issn.1006-7647.2022.03.018
FeiGaogao, WangXiekang.A review of large wood dynamics relevant to hazard characteristics for built structures[J].Geomorphology,2024,453:109152. doi:10.1016/j.geomorph.2024.109152
YangQingyuan, WangXiekang, SunYi,et al.Numerical investigation on a flash flood disaster in streams with confluence and bifurcation[J].Water,2022,14(10):1646. doi:10.3390/w14101646
[35]
PiccoL, TononA, RainatoR,et al.Bank erosion and large wood recruitment along a gravel bed river[J].Journal of Agricultural Engineering,2016,47(2):72. doi:10.4081/jae.2016.488