Objective Geotechnical engineering in cold regions typically involves rock masses containing joints and fractures. During seasonal freeze-thaw cycles, water trapped within these internal structural planes undergoes freezing and thawing, resulting in freeze-thaw damage to the rock mass. This damage leads to the deterioration of mechanical properties and overall structural stability, significantly increasing the risk of engineering accidents. As engineering activities in cold regions continue to expand, the problem of freeze-thaw degradation in fractured rock masses becomes increasingly significant. Therefore, this study investigates the degradation effects and damage mechanisms of saturated fractured rock masses during cyclic freeze-thaw processes at the micromechanical level. The objective is to accurately assess how primary fractures influence the development of secondary fractures during freeze-thaw cycles and to determine whether micromechanical damage alters the loading-fracture characteristics of rock masses. This research provides new insights into the mechanisms of freeze-thaw damage and failure prediction methods for rock slopes in cold regions and advances the interdisciplinary field of rock mechanics and numerical simulation. Methods Fractures within rock masses were connected through rock bridge zones. When external loads caused rock bridge failure, step-like sliding occurred on slopes with discontinuous joints of varying steepness. Therefore, in laboratory experiments, three carefully selected rock specimens with fractures (high dip angle of 75°, low dip angle of 15°, rock bridge length of 15 mm, dip angle of 90°) were subjected to freeze-thaw cycles and uniaxial compression tests after saturation. CT scans were performed on the specimens after they reached predetermined freeze-thaw cycles (0, 15, 30 cycles) or after loading. Using Avizo software, three-dimensional reconstructed images enabled analysis of micro-parameter evolution and quantitative fractal geometric characterization. In numerical simulations, a pore-water-saturated rock model was established in Particle Flow Code (PFC) based on the discrete element method to represent the phase-change expansion of water and ice particles. Parallel-bonding contact models were selected to represent particle cohesion, and the micro-parameters were calibrated using laboratory mechanical test results and trial-and-error methods. The entire freeze-thaw cycle was controlled using Fish language to simulate the coupled expansion of pore water and ice particles during phase transitions. Microcrack evolution diagrams, crack rose diagrams, displacement plots, and force chain diagrams were recorded and processed for different freeze-thaw cycle counts (0, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30 cycles). The extent to which internal structural degradation influenced local strain development during loading deformation and determined failure characteristics remained unclear. Therefore, subsequent uniaxial compression simulations were conducted on freeze-thaw-cracked saturated sandstone. These simulations employed deformation-controlled loading at a rate of 0.05 mm/min until specimen failure occurred. Microcrack evolution diagrams, displacement plots, and force chain diagrams were recorded and processed for different loading stages. Results and Discussions In indoor experiments, the processed CT images underwent three-dimensional reconstruction to evaluate the effects of freeze-thaw damage on distinct fracture zones independently. The reconstructed 3D model was segmented into Fracture Zone I, the rock bridge region, and Fracture Zone Ⅱ. As the number of freeze-thaw cycles increased, both the increment in Euler number and the increment in fracture volume of the specimens gradually increased, indicating an accelerated progression of freeze-thaw damage during the later stages. Second, the study calculated the surface porosity of each layer based on the CT scan images. The increment in surface porosity during the later freeze-thaw stage exceeded that observed in the earlier stage, which further validated the accelerated progression of freeze-thaw damage in the later phase. In addition, the study revealed that damage was concentrated in Fracture Zone I during both the early and late freeze-thaw stages, while the rock bridge region exhibited minimal damage. In numerical simulations, microcrack development during the early freeze-thaw phase primarily occurred on specimen surfaces and around joints. As the number of freeze-thaw cycles increased, microcracks progressively expanded inward from the specimen periphery and joint margins. Then, crack clustering emerged around the joints and exhibited localized cumulative effects. The intensity of crack clustering was significantly higher around low-angle joints than around high-angle joints. After 20 freeze-thaw cycles, secondary cracks induced by freeze-thaw damage became observable around the low-angle joints, which caused severe specimen degradation. This finding further confirmed that low-angle joints sustained greater damage than high-angle joints during freeze-thaw cycles. At any freeze-thaw cycle count, tensile microcracks significantly outnumbered shear cracks and dominated the damage pattern. Further analysis of the displacement and force chain diagrams revealed that particle displacement and freeze-induced swelling forces were primarily concentrated around the fractures. After 25 freeze-thaw cycles, a distinct low-force chain line appeared from the left tip of the low-angle fractures to the specimen boundary. This occurred because secondary fractures generated by freeze-thaw damage propagated to the boundary and caused stress release. Regarding the evolution of microcracks and fracture mechanisms during the simulated uniaxial compression of freeze-thaw fractured sandstone, the study identified four distinct loading stages: (Ⅰ) crack-free stage, (Ⅱ) slow crack development stage, (Ⅲ) rapid crack propagation stage, and (Ⅳ) through-crack failure stage. A comprehensive evaluation of fracture evolution under loading for both unfrozen specimens and specimens subjected to 30 freeze-thaw cycles revealed several similarities. Fractures initiated on the right side of the low-angle fractures, propagated along the rock bridge regions, and connected with the high-angle fractures. Both conditions exhibited block detachment on the left side of the low-angle fractures. However, clear differences also emerged. Multiple inner wing cracks were observed around the low-angle fractures in the specimens subjected to 30 freeze-thaw cycles during failure. Crack propagation was more intense, and failure was more complete in these specimens, which indicated a greater destructive potential in freeze-thaw-cycled specimens. Conclusions This study employs the discrete element method to simulate freeze-thaw cycles and uniaxial compression in fractured, water-saturated sandstone by modeling the phase change expansion of water-ice particles. The results are validated through laboratory mechanical tests and computed tomography (CT) analysis. At the microscale, the evolution of freeze-thaw damage and the characteristics of microfractures in fractured, water-saturated sandstone are investigated. The results indicate that freeze-thaw damage primarily concentrates near low-angle fractures, which trigger secondary crack propagation during the later stages of the cycles. Tensile microcracks dominate throughout the freeze-thaw process, while stress concentration occurs around fractures due to freeze expansion caused by water-ice phase transitions. During loading-induced failure, microcracks exhibit a "slow-moderate-rapid" evolution trend. Tensile microcracks significantly outnumber shear microcracks, indicating a pronounced tensile failure mode. Secondary cracks induced by freeze-thaw cycles become interconnected under loading. As the number of freeze-thaw cycles increases, crack propagation intensifies, ultimately leading to more complete fragmentation. This study provides a theoretical foundation for improving operational safety in geotechnical engineering in cold regions.
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