Objective Existing studies on the damage and response of underground arch structures under explosive loads have produced relatively abundant results. However, these studies mainly focus on the working conditions of internal explosions or external head-on explosions, while research on the dynamic response characteristics and failure modes of arch structures under external lateral explosive loads with a certain offset angle remains relatively limited. Therefore, to investigate the blast resistance of shallow-buried reinforced concrete arched tunnels under lateral blast loads, a fully coupled three-dimensional numerical model of "TNT-sand-tunnel" is established using the Smooth Particle Hydrodynamics and Finite Element Method (SPH-FEM) coupling algorithm. This study examines the effects of different lateral initiation angles and explosive charges on the dynamic response, damage process, failure modes, and damage levels of the tunnel structure. The research results provide a theoretical basis for the blast-resistant design of tunnel structures. Method A coupled SPH-FEM algorithm was employed to construct a "TNT-sand" coupled numerical model for simulating the propagation process of explosive shock waves in soil media. A comparative analysis of the velocity and pressure time history curves of typical SPH particles and FEM elements verified the effectiveness of the coupling interaction between SPH particles and FEM elements. The peak pressure obtained from the SPH-FEM explosion simulation was compared to the calculation results derived from the empirical formula provided in the TM5-855-1 manual. The two sets of results showed good agreement, indicating that the adopted coupling algorithm and related material models can effectively simulate the explosive process in soil media. Based on this, a multi-medium coupled numerical model was established to reproduce the on-site explosion test process of concrete slabs. This further verified the accuracy and effectiveness of the SPH-FEM method in analyzing the explosion responses of reinforced concrete structures, confirming that the method can reliably predict the damage evolution process and failure modes of concrete structures under explosive loads. In addition, the anti-explosion performance of tunnel structures under different explosion source positions (45°, 60°, 75°, and 90°) was investigated, and the influence of lateral initiation angles on the anti-explosion performance of tunnel structures was systematically evaluated. Results and Discussion The propagation process of explosive shock waves inside tunnel structures under different lateral initiation angles was analyzed, clarifying the differences in shock wave propagation characteristics under different initiation conditions. The influence on the peak displacement of the arch surface was mainly reflected in the gradual attenuation of the peak displacement at the measuring points on the arch surface as the lateral initiation angle decreased, accompanied by a shift in the peak position. Significant differences were observed in the pressure distribution of tunnels under different lateral initiation angles. Specifically, under the direct top explosion condition, the pressure distribution on the arch surface was uneven, and the pressure peak exhibited a gradual attenuation trend from the arch crown to the arch springing. Under lateral initiation angles of 60° and 45°, the pressure peak positions shifted noticeably. Under different lateral initiation angles and explosive equivalents, the pressure peak distribution exhibited an approximately triangular characteristic. As the initiation angle decreased, the pressure peak gradually decreased, and the intensity of the distribution characteristic, namely the steepness of the triangular shape, became weaker. Several additional phenomena were observed. The pressure distribution on the arch surface became more uniform, the compression zone and tension zone of the arch wall shifted to the right, the tension zone of the straight wall on the near-explosion side moved downward, and the tension zone on the far-explosion side shifted toward the arch crown. The failure modes and damage mechanisms of tunnel structures under different initiation angles and explosive equivalents were also analyzed, with the failure volume ratio adopted as the evaluation criterion for assessing the degree of tunnel damage under different explosive amounts and initiation angles. Under identical explosion source conditions, the failure volume ratio of the tunnel exhibited a decreasing trend as the lateral initiation angle decreased. Specifically, under the 45° side-top initiation condition, the failure volume ratio corresponding to 3.0 kg of explosive was 4.70%, 4.12%, and 1.92% lower than those under the 90°, 75°, and 60° initiation conditions, respectively. In addition, the single degree of freedom (SDOF) method was utilized to classify the damage levels of tunnel structures subjected to explosive loads, revealing that both the intensity and position of the load are important factors influencing the explosion response of tunnel structures. Conclusion The study systematically reveals that the lateral initiation angle has a significant influence on the load distribution pattern along the tunnel arch crown. As the initiation angle decreases, the triangular distribution characteristic of the peak pressure at the arch crown weakens, resulting in a more uniform pressure distribution, although the peak pressure gradually decreases. Under different initiation angles and explosive equivalents, the tunnel structure exhibits symmetric distributions of displacement and stress in the case of vertical overhead explosions. In contrast, lateral initiation produces non-uniform and asymmetric characteristics, resulting in varying degrees of damage to the tunnel structure. The results further clarify that the critical failure point of concrete structures mainly occurs in the tensile stress region as the detonation angle decreases, causing the tensile failure region to become much larger than the compressive failure region. Quantitative analysis was conducted to evaluate the influence of explosive equivalent and detonation angle on the structural damage level. Specifically, the damage level of the tunnel under vertical roof detonation decreased from severe damage to mild damage as the explosive charge decreased. In addition, the maximum displacement of the tunnel exhibited a decreasing trend with the reduction in the lateral detonation angle, and the damage level decreased significantly. These research findings can provide an important theoretical basis and design reference for identifying vulnerable parts of tunnel arch structures under different detonation angles.
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