Objective The collapse of shallow-buried tunnels in water-rich strata remains a persistent challenge for underground construction in densely populated urban areas. The sudden failure of the cross-passage at Shahe Station on Guangzhou Metro Line 11, which occurred during excavation using the mining method, highlights the complex interaction among groundwater, surrounding rock strength, and excavation support conditions. This study aims to clarify the mechanism responsible for the collapse and identify the dominant factors controlling face stability in fractured, water-bearing strata. Special emphasis is placed on establishing a rational evaluation method for the face safety factor under seepage conditions by integrating numerical simulation results with upper-bound limit analysis, providing design guidance for tunnel construction in similar hydrogeological environments. Methods A three-dimensional numerical model was developed to reproduce the excavation process of the cross-passage under fluid-solid coupling conditions. The computational framework combined finite-difference-based stress-deformation analysis with groundwater seepage modeling, enabling the simulation of the coupled interaction among pore water pressure, stress redistribution, and deformation evolution. Excavation was simulated in stages based on the practical excavation sequence. Key factors were parametrically varied, including hydraulic head, strength parameters of the weathered silty sandstone, support installation timing, and the thickness of the protective layer above the tunnel crown. The strength reduction method was applied to determine the reduction factor at which the numerical model reached failure to quantify tunnel face stability. In addition, an analytical formulation of the tunnel face safety factor was proposed by integrating the strength reduction approach with the upper bound theorem of limit analysis while incorporating groundwater seepage effects. The reliability of the proposed upper bound solution was validated through comparisons with published case studies and numerical simulation benchmarks. The collapse morphology revealed by the numerical model was further utilized to establish a mechanistic model describing the instability process of the tunnel face under water-rich conditions. Results and Discussions The simulations successfully reproduced the collapse characteristics of the Shahe Station cross-passage and captured the principal failure features, including crown subsidence, progressive deformation of the surrounding rock, and hydraulic gradient-induced instability. The results revealed four dominant destabilizing factors: 1) a high hydraulic head difference at the crown, 2) excessively low strength of the crown surrounding rock, 3) delayed installation of support structures, and 4) insufficient thickness of the weakly weathered silty sandstone serving as a protective layer. Quantitative threshold analyses indicated that when the crown hydraulic head exceeded approximately 13 m or the cohesion of the crown rock mass fell below 400 kPa, face deformation exceeded the allowable safety limit. Under conditions in which timely support was not provided, the protective layer thickness was required to be at least 2 m to prevent collapse. The proposed upper-bound method for calculating the tunnel face safety factor under groundwater influence showed strong agreement with published analytical solutions and independent numerical simulation results. Sensitivity analyses demonstrated that the tunnel face safety factor decreased as the hydraulic head and tunnel excavation diameter increased, whereas it increased with greater protective layer thickness and higher rock cohesion. The comparison between the numerical and analytical results confirmed that incorporating groundwater seepage into the upper bound limit analysis was essential for accurately assessing tunnel face stability. In addition, the collapse mechanism model established from the numerical observations revealed a progressive failure process consisting of initial pore pressure accumulation at the excavation crown, localized plastic deformation within the weak sandstone, rapid loss of load-bearing capacity due to hydraulic gradient amplification, and eventual roof collapse accompanied by large-scale deformation. Conclusions The study clarified the coupled hydro-mechanical factors governing the collapse of shallow-buried tunnels in water-rich strata. The main triggers of the Shahe Station collapse were identified as high crown water head, low crown rock strength, insufficient protective layer thickness, and delayed support installation. The integration of the strength reduction method and upper bound limit analysis produced a reliable upper bound solution for evaluating tunnel face safety factors under groundwater influence. The validated calculation method revealed consistent trends in safety factor variation with hydraulic head, excavation diameter, protective layer thickness, and rock cohesion. The findings provide a scientific basis for risk evaluation and design optimization of mining-method tunnels under similar hydrogeological conditions.
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