Significance Circulators are three-port nonreciprocal microwave devices that enable unidirectional signal transmission while providing reverse isolation. They play essential roles in active phased array radar transmit/receive (T/R) modules by providing channel isolation and in wireless communication radio frequency (RF) frontends by enabling in-band full-duplex operation. With the continued development of 5G/6G communications and the growing trend toward high-density integration, the miniaturization and planar integration of circulators become critical research directions. Traditional ferrite circulators rely on external permanent magnets to provide bias fields, resulting in substantial volume and weight, magnetic interference, and incompatibility with semiconductor fabrication processes. Two technical approaches are explored to overcome these limitations: material innovation using self-biased hexaferrites and circuit architecture innovation using nonmagnetic time-modulated approaches. Progress Self-biased circulators utilized the high magnetocrystalline anisotropy field of hexaferrites to replace external permanent magnets and achieved nonreciprocal performance under zero applied field. M-type barium hexaferrite (BaFe12O19, BaM) was the preferred material, with an anisotropy field of approximately 17.5 kOe and zero-field ferromagnetic resonance frequencies of 30-50 GHz. A high remanence ratio (Mr/Ms > 90%) was required to maintain sufficient magnetization in the zero-bias state, in which the effective internal field was determined by the anisotropy field and remanent magnetization through the demagnetizing factor. Ion substitution enabled frequency tuning: Al3+ or Ga3+ substitution increased the anisotropy field for W-band operation, whereas Sc3+ or In3+ substitution reduced it for C- to Ka-band applications. Co-Ti cosubstitution allowed a reduction in the anisotropy field while maintaining the c-axis magnetic anisotropy. W-type hexaferrites were also investigated because of their high anisotropy and low microwave losses. Material preparation required the simultaneous achievement of high c-axis texture, high density, and low microwave loss. Magnetic field orientation aligned the formation of single-domain particles (1-2 μm) under strong magnetic fields, whereas sintering at 1 100-1 150 °C in an oxygen atmosphere achieved 90%-95% of the theoretical density. A trade-off existed between density and magnetic performance: high density reduced domain-wall pinning and coercivity, whereas moderate density preserved coercivity through porosity; however, broadened the resonance linewidth. System integration cofired LTCC multilayer and semiconductor-substrate hybrid integration approaches. LTCC approaches included embedding presintered hexaferrite bulks in cavities, screen-printing ferrite paste onto LTCC tapes, and magnetically oriented ferrite tapes with LTCC layers. Low-temperature thermocompression bonding of oriented BaM thick films onto SiC substrates yielded miniaturized circulators with B insertion loss of 1.2 dB and a bandwidth of 2.5 at 35 GHz, with dimensions of only 3.0 × 2.8 mm. Key challenges included ferromagnetic resonance linewidths of 200-500 Oe, temperature-dependent remanence, and thermal-budget incompatibility between high-temperature ferrite processing and semiconductor frontend processes. Circulators circumvented dependence on magnetic materials by synthesizing an effective angular momentum bias through linear, periodically time-varying circuits. Periodic modulation with 120° phase differences applied to three coupled resonators broke time-reversal symmetry without actual magnetic fields and split clockwise and counterclockwise resonant modes to achieve nonreciprocal transmission. Circuit topology evolved through several generations. Coupled-resonator loop topologies initially verified the angular momentum bias concept and achieved isolation exceeding 50 dB. Single-ended topologies (bandpass/Y-type, bandstop/Y-type, bandstop/Δ-type, and bandpass/Δ-type) achieved an insertion loss of 3.3 dB and isolation of 55 dB at 1 GHz, with an instantaneous bandwidth of 2.4%. Differential architectures that combined two single-ended circuits with a 180° phase difference suppressed intermodulation products and achieved an insertion loss of 0.8 dB. N-path architectures further extended spurious suppression to -62 dBc and provided an N-fold improvement in power handling at the cost of increased size and power consumption. Integration was demonstrated in 180 nm CMOS using switched-capacitor modulation, which achieved an insertion loss of 4.9 dB and isolation of 60 dB at 910 MHz with an active area of 0.2 mm2, and in MEMS, which achieved a power consumption of 150 μW; however, exhibited a narrow bandwidth. Core challenges included intermodulation product suppression, limited instantaneous bandwidth, and low on-chip inductor quality factors (Q≈10-20) in CMOS implementations. Conclusions and Prospects Two integration routes for circulators have been systematically reviewed. Self-biased circulators based on hexaferrite with high magnetocrystalline anisotropy provide advantages in millimeter-wave frequency coverage and power-handling capacity, making them suitable for high-performance phased-array T/R modules. Nonmagnetic circulators based on spatiotemporal modulation and synthesized angular momentum bias exhibit superior process compatibility and on-chip integration density, making them promising for 5G/6G communication frontends. Both routes are undergoing rapid development and provide complementary strengths for different applications. Future trends include the co-optimization of materials and processes to reduce insertion loss to below 1 dB and extend operating frequencies toward the terahertz range; the development of nonmagnetic circulators with broader bandwidth (>10%), higher linearity, and lower power consumption; the use of advanced packaging and three-dimensional integration to achieve deeper RF frontend integration; and the exploration of new physical mechanisms and materials, such as topological insulators, magnetoelectric coupling materials, and metasurfaces.
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