二甲双胍治疗生长激素细胞瘤的机制研究进展

许丹霞 ,  陈慧

海南医科大学学报 ›› 2025, Vol. 31 ›› Issue (11) : 863 -871.

PDF (527KB)
海南医科大学学报 ›› 2025, Vol. 31 ›› Issue (11) : 863 -871. DOI: 10.13210/j.cnki.jhmu.20250227.003
综述

二甲双胍治疗生长激素细胞瘤的机制研究进展

作者信息 +

Advances in the mechanistic study of metformin in the treatment of growth hormone cell tumors

Author information +
文章历史 +
PDF (539K)

摘要

生长激素细胞瘤是以内分泌性和占位性效应集于一体的肿瘤性病变。经蝶窦手术切除术是生长激素细胞瘤的一线治疗方案,其术后的内分泌低缓解率和肿瘤高复发率是治疗过程的严峻挑战之一。临床上常以多巴胺受体激动剂、生长抑素受体配体和生长激素受体拮抗剂等药物作为主要的辅助治疗,但治疗效果仍存在明显个体差异。二甲双胍作为一线降糖药物,降糖、改善胰岛素敏感性的同时具有抗肿瘤特性,主要通过激活单磷酸腺苷活化蛋白激酶依赖性和非依赖性通路减缓肿瘤的生长和增殖速度,抑制胰岛素‑胰岛素生长因子1‑生长激素内分泌路径改善生长激素细胞瘤的外周效应进一步实现抗肿瘤效应。本文论述了二甲双胍对生长激素细胞瘤的细胞微环境及激素合成分泌的调控作用机制,为对抗生长激素细胞瘤的药物研究和选择提供新思路。

Abstract

Growth hormone cell tumors are neoplastic lesions with a combination of endocrine and occupying effects. Transsphenoidal sinus surgical resection is the first‑line treatment option for growth hormone cell tumors, and its postoperative endocrine low remission rate and high tumor recurrence rate is one of the serious challenges in the treatment process. Drugs such as dopamine receptor agonists, somatostatin receptor ligands, and growth hormone receptor antagonists are often used as the main adjuvant therapy in the clinic, but the therapeutic efficacy still has obvious individual differences. Metformin, as a first‑line hypoglycemic drug, has anti‑tumor properties while lowering glucose and improving insulin sensitivity, mainly through the activation of adenosine monophosphate‑activated protein kinase‑dependent and non‑dependent pathways to slow down tumor growth and proliferation, and the inhibition of insulin‑insulin growth factor 1‑growth hormone endocrine pathway to improve the peripheral effects to further achieve anti‑tumor effects. This paper discusses the mechanism of metformin's regulation of the cellular microenvironment and hormone synthesis and secretion in growth hormone cell tumors, and provides new ideas for the study and selection of drugs against growth hormone cell tumors.

关键词

二甲双胍 / 生长激素细胞瘤 / 单磷酸腺苷活化蛋白激酶 / 生长激素 / 胰岛素 / 胰岛素生长因子‑1

Key words

Metformin / Growth hormone cell tumors / Adenosine monophosphate‑activated protein kinase / Growth hormone / Insulin / Insulin growth factor‑1

引用本文

引用格式 ▾
许丹霞,陈慧. 二甲双胍治疗生长激素细胞瘤的机制研究进展[J]. 海南医科大学学报, 2025, 31(11): 863-871 DOI:10.13210/j.cnki.jhmu.20250227.003

登录浏览全文

4963

注册一个新账户 忘记密码

生长激素细胞瘤是垂体前叶分泌生长激素(growth hormone,GH)的细胞克隆性增生的肿瘤,以引起全身内分泌性改变和占位效应为特征,主要表现为面容改变、肢端肥大、头痛等症状1。内镜下经蝶窦切除术虽是GH细胞瘤的一线治疗方案,但约有30%的患者术后无法达到生化缓解和临床控制2,其中,经手术治疗且合并内分泌紊乱的GH细胞瘤患者约占20%,预期死亡率是普通人的2.5倍3。目前,生长抑素受体配体(somatostatin receptor ligands,SRLs)、多巴胺受体激动剂和GH受体拮抗剂是GH细胞瘤治疗的主要药物,其中多巴胺受体激动剂溴隐亭改善GH细胞瘤预后的有效率高至70%,但耐药性、昂贵的费用使患者望而却步。SRLs药物中以帕瑞肽为代表,虽有良好的肿瘤抑制效应,但会明显影响机体的血糖调节和胰岛素的敏感性及分泌进一步加重GH细胞瘤的糖脂代谢紊乱。二甲双胍(metformin,MF)作为一线口服降糖药物被证明在单磷酸腺苷活化蛋白激酶的磷酸化、细胞能量的平衡、肿瘤免疫微环境的调控等抗肿瘤机制方面具有巨大潜在价值45。GH细胞瘤的神经内分泌特性引发人们对其使用MF进行辅助性治疗的思考,深入研究MF对GH瘤体细胞及外周效应的干预作用对改善GH细胞瘤预后具有重要的现实意义。本文就MF调控GH细胞瘤的机制研究进行阐述,为抗GH细胞瘤的药物选择提供理论依据。

1 二甲双胍治疗GH细胞瘤的药理基础

MF是以异亚氨基胍为母体衍生构建的化合物6,通过增加胰岛素敏感性、减少肝脏糖异生、增加外周组织的葡萄糖利用率实现血糖的控制。人体摄入MF后,口服剂量的40%~80%通过质膜单胺转运体(plasma membrane monoamine transporter,PMAT)和有机阳离子转运体(organic cation transporter 1 or 3,OCT1或OCT3)转至体内,以带正电荷的质子化形式分布于肝脏、胃肠道等部位4,2.5~3 h后即可达到血浆浓度峰值,在机体各组织发挥降糖效应后由肾脏上皮细胞的OCT2介导排除7。经证实,动物和人类的循环MF浓度相近,约为10~40 μmol/L8。MF在药物浓度差异性和阳离子转运体基因多态性的共同影响下,肝脏成为了MF发挥降糖效应的主要靶器官,质子化的MF在细胞膜电位驱动下降低线粒体电子传递链的活性9,主要通过单磷酸腺苷活化蛋白激酶(adenosine monophosphate‑activated protein kinase,AMPK)和非AMPK途径实现细胞能量稳态以及葡萄糖和脂质代谢。AMPK作为组织细胞分解与合成代谢通路的关键因子,主要参与促进糖酵解与三羧酸循环和诱导脂肪酸氧化分解等代谢过程10,故AMPK也成为了MF治疗代谢性疾病的重要靶点。

目前研究认为MF减缓肿瘤发生和发展的核心机制也是对细胞代谢的直接和间接调节,激活线粒体呼吸链复合物Ⅰ触发的AMPK/mTOR通路是被认可的实现抗肿瘤效应的主要通路11。尤其是在高血糖和高胰岛素环境下MF不仅会直接抑制肿瘤生长和增殖的速度,而且会减少肿瘤异种移植物的胰岛素受体激活效应,通过降低外周激素水平和抑制多条信号通路的方式减少肿瘤的生长促进途径。垂体是MF的积累靶器官之一,当MF的药物剂量积累达到基线浓度时会参与垂体前叶细胞的功能和代谢并抑制垂体前叶激素的病理性过度分泌1213。因此,MF不仅针对GH细胞瘤又或是其引发的内分泌并发症都可能存在明显效益。

2 二甲双胍治疗GH细胞瘤的机制研究

2.1 AMPK的结构与功能

AMPK是一种异源三聚体复合物,由一个催化α亚基和两个调节亚基β和γ组成,共可能存在12种不同的AMPK复合物14。AMP/ATP或ADP/ATP升高的能量应激信号会激活AMPK,实现细胞能量稳态的调节15。机体能量供应和利用处于长期慢性不平衡的状态时会异常激活AMPK,导致肺癌、淋巴瘤、糖尿病等多种肿瘤及慢性疾病的发生,因此AMPK常常被视为肿瘤治疗的药物靶标。已有研究证实AMPK丢失或活性丧失的数量在多种肿瘤中会明显增多16。AMPK在下丘脑‑垂体水平影响生长激素‑胰岛素生长因子‑1轴系,影响不同组织细胞的生长和分化,也会介导循环激素或代谢因子对GH细胞的直接影响17。由此可推测出当垂体前叶发生肿瘤性病变时也可能存在明显的AMPK丢失或失活。MF作为AMPK的典型激活剂,GH细胞瘤同时具有肿瘤和内分泌性改变特征,从不同角度考虑MF极有可能是改善GH细胞瘤预后的靶点药物。

2.2 调控信号通路

2.2.1 AMPK依赖性通路

2.2.1.1 pAMPK与细胞凋亡

AMPK的激活是目前认为MF抗GH细胞瘤的关键步骤。Bizzi等18发现在散发性和家族性孤立性GH细胞瘤的AMPK含量和活化AMPK含量(phosphorylation of AMPK,pAMPK)都会明显高于非肿瘤GH细胞,尽管两者含量升高趋势存在不一致性。既往研究表明线粒体代谢中间体AMPK和有效的呼吸链复合物Ⅰ的功能状态在肿瘤生长中占据重要地位19。MF在生理pH下以阳离子的形式被线粒体摄取,在线粒体膜电位不断增加的影响下,MF呈正反馈式在线粒体基质内不断积累直至可逆的抑制呼吸链复合物Ⅰ,诱导合成的ATP减少,大量激活AMPK后直接导致不耐受高能量应激的肿瘤细胞死亡20。有研究用MF处理人原代GH细胞瘤后发现体积减小的肿瘤细胞中pAMPK表达增多的同时线粒体膜电位降低,凋亡途径相关的蛋白Bax和裂解的caspase‑3表达增加,抗凋亡蛋白Bcl‑2表达降低,并在降糖治疗剂量下MF就可降低超过50%的细胞活力1221。随后的Faggi等22在GH3和GH1细胞中证实了An等21的研究结果。然而MF激活GH肿瘤细胞凋亡过程的效能可能会随着肿瘤细胞代谢和遗传特征的变化而存在明显的异质性。有研究应用包括MF在内的3种双胍类药物治疗多个类型的垂体神经内分泌肿瘤,发现双胍类药物仅能降低人促肾上腺皮质激素和无功能垂体细胞瘤的细胞活力,而对GH和泌乳素细胞瘤却没有明显的治疗差异,并且尽管使用了高浓度,也不会影响GH和泌乳素分泌2。虽然MF诱导的pAMPK和凋亡蛋白高表达可能因为肿瘤细胞的多样性存在效果差异,但并不妨碍MF成为抗GH细胞瘤的有效靶向药物。

2.2.1.2 pAMPK与细胞增殖

AMPK依赖性机制阻止细胞周期进程是MF实现抗肿瘤细胞增殖的主要通路2325,当MF从不同层面模拟限制细胞代谢的热量时会减少细胞增殖过程的能量消耗从而抑制肿瘤发展2627。从多方面考虑,抑制肿瘤细胞增殖很可能是MF改善垂体神经内分泌肿瘤的药物靶点。此前,有研究用MF处理MMQ和GH3细胞后发现细胞发育周期停滞,两种细胞系的增殖过程被显著抑制,且增殖抑制过程呈现出剂量和时间依赖性282930。Faggi等22则在GH1和GH3细胞瘤大鼠模型中发现48 h内肿瘤细胞活力会下降,生长受到抑制,肿瘤细胞的增殖过程处于停滞状态,这足以证明细胞周期停滞是抑制肿瘤细胞增殖的关键过渡阶段。近期的体外研究进一步验证了MF的干预是通过激活AMPK信号通路和抑制IGF‑1R/AKT/mTOR通路发挥减少激素分泌的作用和促使肿瘤细胞停滞在G1/S期3132,全面的阐释了MF可以通过AMPK相关途径抑制细胞增殖实现抗肿瘤效应,很可能是治疗GH细胞瘤的有效替代药物。

2.2.1.3 pAMPK与细胞自噬

细胞自噬在肿瘤中起着动态而复杂的作用,以环境依赖性方式充当肿瘤抑制因子和肿瘤存活因子。MF治疗肿瘤时会通过激活AMPK通路诱导自噬和自噬通量,由此也可以表明细胞自噬可能是MF治疗垂体神经内分泌肿瘤的靶点之一33。近期研究表明现有的GH细胞瘤治疗药物能够在MMQ和GH3细胞系中诱导自噬的同时降低自噬通量导致细胞毒性和自噬依赖性细胞死亡,说明药物诱导的自噬过程可能是减缓GH细胞瘤体积的途径34。有研究发现在体外实验模型中自噬途径也会参与垂体激素的分泌过程35。Tulipano等34进一步证实药物在诱导分泌自噬时会增强GH瘤体细胞中的GH分泌颗粒的胞内降解。pAMPK/mTOR和pAMPK/sirtuin1是目前被认可的MF参与自噬诱导作用的关键通路36。现有研究显示人体功能性垂体神经内分泌肿瘤的Beclin1和LC3自噬蛋白会明显升高,AKT/mTOR 则是介导的通路之一3738,同时,相关研究也表明包含MF在内的降糖药物会促进GH细胞瘤细胞的凋亡和自噬,并激活PGE2/cAMP/PKA通路后直接增加GHR表达从而降低GH和IGF‑1水平39,足以证明MF诱导GH细胞瘤自噬的介导通路不局限于AMPK,更可能是从多个信号通路诱导自噬后降低GH细胞瘤的激素水平和减小肿瘤体积。由此可见,MF是同时改善GH细胞瘤激素外周效应和颅内占位效应的最佳辅助药物。

2.2.1.4 cAMP/AMPK/Sirtuin 1信号通路

生长激素释放激素(growth hormone‑releasing hormone,GHRH)是调节生长激素细胞合成和分泌GH的主要刺激因子。GHRH受体(GHRH receptors,GHRH‑R)与刺激性异源三聚体G蛋白(stimulates heterotrimeric G proteins,Gs)和腺苷酸环化酶(adenylyl cyclase,AC)激活偶联。有40%的散发性GH细胞瘤患者携带GNAS基因突变,导致腺苷‑3',5'‑环磷酸(cyclic adenosine monophosphate,cAMP)水平组成性升高2940。这些前提条件虽可表明MF通过GHRH,刺激cAMP信号通路改变GH细胞代谢,然而,经研究后发现MF仅倾向于增强GHRH对cAMP反应元件结合蛋白(cAMP reaction element‑binding proteins,CREB)磷酸化的刺激作用,不影响AC活性但会增加AMPK活性22。由此可以推测出MF不通过AC/cAMP途径而是cAMP/AMPK通路调控细胞的代谢及生长。Keck41分别选用SRLs和MF处理人原代GH肿瘤细胞,其GH的表达量和细胞增殖量远低于SRLs联合MF组,对此结果作者认为是MF的抗GH细胞瘤效应并不依赖cAMP/PKA路径,而是MF激活了AMPK/Sirtuin 1信号通路与SRLs抑制的cAMP/PKA通路产生叠加效应,从而放大了SRLs的抗肿瘤效应。Gao等28选取GH3细胞和异种移植肿瘤小鼠模型进一步证明MF通过AMPK/Sirtuin 1信号通路抑制肿瘤细胞的生长并使肿瘤体积减小40%。近期有临床研究将MF以850 mg,每天两次的剂量应用于GH细胞瘤患者围手术期,不仅发现pAMPK水平明显高于未暴露于MF的患者,而且发现散发性和家族性GH细胞瘤的pAMPK水平并不存在差异性18。然而,MF的抗肿瘤作用不仅限于此,多项横断面研究显示MF对GH细胞瘤并发肿瘤或改变第二肿瘤恶性程度可能具有预防作用4244。cAMP/AMPK/Sirtuin 1信号通路是GH细胞发生肿瘤病变的关键通路之一,MF通过此通路可能不仅单纯作用于良性GH细胞瘤,而且可能在易复发且高侵袭性的GH细胞瘤中也发挥重要作用,对GH细胞瘤的继发性肿瘤更可能有明显的保护作用,现有的机制研究均可表明MF依赖AMPK通路实现抗GH细胞瘤效应。

2.2.2 AMPK非依赖性通路

MF是AMPK的激活剂但对肿瘤细胞的代谢、信号转导以及细胞功能的多重影响并不完全依赖AMPK通路。此前,有研究人员用AMPK抑制剂并未逆转GH细胞瘤中激活的AMPK通路,证明存在AMPK非依赖性通路介导MF发挥抗GH细胞瘤效应。

2.2.2.1 RAF/MEK/ERK与PI3K/AKT/mTOR通路

RAF/MEK/ERK通路在细胞周期调节和细胞生长代谢复杂的信号网络中起着关键作用4546,如在垂体瘤发生的初始阶段促进肿瘤细胞增殖和GH的表达47。细胞外调节蛋白激酶(extracellular regulated protein kinases,ERK)和丝裂原活化蛋白激酶(mitogen‑activated protein kinase,MAPK)是肿瘤细胞生存与否的决定性因子。有学者早期发现蛋白激酶C(protein kinase C,PKC)通过GHRH受体激活ERK1/2,而PKA以不依赖受体的方式通过cAMP通路激活ERK1/2,最终刺激GH细胞克隆性增生47。PI3K/AKT/mTOR通路是另一主要的促肿瘤发生路径444850,在正常GH细胞中无需激活但在GH细胞瘤中占据核心地位,此通路的低活性或高活性状态均会扰动GH细胞发育,导致细胞周期停滞或过度增生45。在一项包括53例垂体样本的研究中,各类型肿瘤的哺乳动物雷帕霉素靶蛋白(mammalian target of rapamycin,mTOR)激酶活性均升高,尤其在GH细胞瘤中最活跃51。MF曾被提议通过激活RAF/MEK/ERK和抑制PI3K/AKT/mTOR通路直接或间接实现抗GH细胞瘤作用52。有研究发现在人GH细胞瘤的原代培养物中应用双胍类的药物后细胞凋亡率增加和GH分泌抑制,ERK1/2和AKT的磷酸化水平明显增强253。有学者则在GH3细胞中证实MF会抑制表皮生长因子诱导激活的mTOR/p70S6激酶通路,同时下调信号转导及转录激活蛋白3(signal transducer and activator of transcription 3,STAT3)磷酸化并增加活化转录因子(activating transcription factor 3,ATF3)的活性,从而抑制GH3细胞的生长和GH的分泌2122。STAT3磷酸化抑制GH过度分泌的机制尚未完全明了,但有研究曾验证了干扰STAT3会减少人体GH细胞瘤和裸鼠GH细胞瘤的GH分泌5455。Vazquez‑Borrego等56采用辛伐他汀联合MF治疗GH细胞瘤狒狒时发现24 h内GH的分泌水平降低,但肿瘤细胞的GH mRNA及表达水平并未降低,同时也发现肿瘤细胞活力下降和MAPK/PI3K/mTOR高表达。以上结果在48~72 h内消失,可能是辛伐他汀和MF的抗肿瘤机制重叠而未表现出叠加的抗肿瘤效应。RAF/MEK/ERK和PI3K/AKT/mTOR通路是GH细胞瘤发生的主要AMPK非依赖性路径,MF并不是独立作用于两条通路,可能是以相互交错的方式协同抗GH瘤体细胞生长与增殖,从而发挥最大的抗肿瘤效应。

2.2.2.2 IGF‑1/mTOR通路和胞内Ca2+动员

胰岛素样生长因子1受体(insulin Growth Factor‑1,IGF‑1R)是肿瘤研究中最密集的激酶靶点之一,有研究表明耐药性GH细胞瘤经MF处理后,IGF‑1R、mTOR和胰岛素(insulin,INS)的表达水平随MF浓度的增加逐渐下降,肿瘤呈现剂量依赖性缩减,不难推测MF可能依赖IGF‑1/mTOR通路阻止激素分泌性肿瘤发生、发展5758。Ca2+是触发肌肉收缩、激素分泌和基因转录的关键信使分子,电压门控钙通道通过控制Ca2+穿过质膜的流入,调节胞内Ca2+水平,当浓度异常会诱发垂体疾病5960。有研究曾提出在GH细胞瘤中DA受体仅与胞内Ca2+还原单线偶联,这虽然属于一种缺陷式偶联,但是胞内Ca2+水平的降低时足以改变GH细胞瘤外周效应61。近期的体外研究也证实胞内Ca2+不仅在GH细胞瘤的GH分泌中占据重要地位,在垂体水平也担任介导MF作用所必需的第二信使分子6264。有研究人员曾在狒狒和猕猴的GH细胞瘤模型中应用药物靶点抑制剂阻断胞内Ca2+动员通路后逆转了MF对GH分泌抑制的作用264。MF通过IGF‑1/mTOR通路和胞内Ca2+动员作用于GH细胞瘤的研究较少,却也能提示MF抗GH细胞瘤并不是由独立而单一的路径介导,更可能是多种通路相互作用呈现出叠加抗肿瘤效应。

2.2.2.3 其他

全基因组测序表明,p53未突变的GH细胞瘤是良性腺瘤,若发生突变则与垂体肿瘤的生物侵袭行为有关6566,故有学者认为MF在一定程度也可通过AMPK/p53、抑制CD8+肿瘤浸润淋巴细胞等路径控制垂体肿瘤的细胞存活状态216768。尽管少数研究提出MF不能抑制GH细胞瘤的细胞活力,也无法缩减肿瘤体积,但不能排除结论的差异性是样本量和MF干预时间不同所致26469。MF治疗GH细胞瘤的机制研究多局限于体外研究与动物模型,不可否认的是AMPK非依赖性通路也可能是MF抗GH细胞瘤的关键通路。

2.3 内分泌途径

GH和IGF‑1是GH细胞瘤控制和观察治疗效果的参数。两种因子长期处于高水平状态会诱发2型糖尿病、高胰岛素血症等多种疾病,在多重并发症因素的影响下,GH细胞瘤患者的生存期限会明显缩短70。因此,GH细胞瘤的分泌性功能决定了病情是否继续发展的关键因素。

2.3.1 INS‑IGF‑1‑GH作用途径

INS、GH和IGF‑1在引起GH细胞瘤临床表现方面关系密切。在正常垂体细胞中INS以浓度依赖性方式上调肝细胞内生长激素受体(growth hormone receptor, GHR)后激活IGF‑1,IGF‑1通过GHRH依赖性反馈机制降低GH水平,GH进一步刺激并升高IGF‑1和INS的浓度,从而维持机体血糖平衡,INS和IGF‑1可以结合并激活彼此的受体,两者浓度变化具备一致性71。在GH细胞瘤患者中,大量的GH过度抑制INS、IGF‑1和GH之间的负反馈机制,出现肝脏内INS降低,刺激肝脏GHR低表达,降低了肝细胞对GH敏感性的同时抑制IGF‑1结合蛋白1的合成,最终增加GH和IGF‑1的外周输出2272。高水平GH通过直接和间接机制干扰INS受体第二信使分子引起外周胰岛素抵抗,尽管胰腺β细胞大量释放INS试图抵消GH水平升高所致的胰岛素抵抗,然而直至β细胞功能受损,高INS水平的促糖酵解与高GH的促糖异生作用仍无法相互抵消,反而促进了GH细胞瘤的发展,使其难治率和复发率远高于其他肿瘤7375

2.3.2 INS‑IGF‑1‑GH抑制效应

现有的GHR拮抗剂培维索曼虽在治疗GH细胞瘤方面已取得成效,却完全忽略了IGF‑1也是葡萄糖和INS代谢控制的重要因素,这可能是部分GH细胞瘤患者对GHR拮抗剂耐药的主要原因。有研究认为MF的抗GH细胞瘤效应不应局限于GH细胞凋亡,也与各组织提升对INS的敏感性和机体维持较低的循环胰岛素水平有关2276。MF作为一线降糖药物,不仅可以弥补现有抗GH细胞瘤药物耐药性的缺陷,而且在改善其并发的糖脂代谢紊乱方面也占据重要地位7778。部分研究证明高达87.5%的GH细胞瘤在经MF处理后可抑制GH、IGF‑1的高分泌状态,SRLs联合MF治疗后IGF‑1的浓度会进一步降低221。体内及体外研究也表现出双胍类药物对GH基因水平的影响2。有学者曾用MF 1.5 g,每天1次的剂量治疗难治性性垂体神经内分泌肿瘤,短时间内症状和肿瘤被消除,激素水平恢复至正常,当停用MF后肿瘤再次复发,对于已经行手术治疗的垂体神经内分泌肿瘤长期服用MF,肿瘤并无复发迹象且激素水平始终降至正常范围内7980。随后的临床研究也表明单纯性MF可明显降低GH细胞瘤患者的IGF‑1水平,当MF合并奥曲肽治疗GH细胞瘤患者时,24 h内MF浓度达到最高剂量(1 μmol/L)会导致GH分泌减少近50%,当浓度高至1 000 μmol/L时,GH肿瘤细胞表现出的GH启动子活性和GH分泌机制的被抑制状态更加明显41。事实证明,MF在短时间内使INS、GH和IGF‑1正常化可降低GH细胞瘤患者的死亡率和发病率708182。多数研究集中于MF的短时效抗肿瘤效应,却无法忽视MF的长时效积累改善效应。基于MF对代谢性疾病调控的绝对优势,MF有望成为如GH细胞瘤的代谢性肿瘤的最佳辅助治疗药物。

3 讨论

综上所述,MF在GH细胞瘤的治疗中既能实现抗肿瘤作用,也能对GH细胞瘤合并高胰岛素、高血糖等内分泌紊乱事件有较好的临床应用价值,可以弥补GH细胞瘤手术治疗所导致的内分泌低缓解率及肿瘤高复发率等不足。因此,利用MF作为GH细胞瘤的辅助治疗手段已成为一种很有前途的策略。但需要注意体外研究应用的MF治疗剂量在人体中的转化程度, MF治疗GH细胞瘤的机制研究仍需大规模的前瞻性试验进一步阐明。

作者贡献度说明:

许丹霞:文献查找,翻阅,记录及写作;陈慧:研究指导,论文修改,经费支持。

所有作者声明不存在利益冲突关系。

参考文献

[1]

中国垂体腺瘤协作组. 中国肢端肥大症诊治共识(2021版)[J]. 中华医学杂志2021101 (27):2115‑2126.

[2]

Chinese Pituitary Adenoma Collaborative Group. Chinese consensus on the diagnosis and treatment of acromegaly(2021) [J]. Chin Med J2021101(27):2115‑2126.

[3]

Vazquez‑Borrego MCFuentes‑Fayos ACHerrera‐Martinez ADet al. Biguanides exert antitumoral actions in pituitary tumor cells through AMPK‑dependent and ‑independent mechanisms[J]. J Clin Endocrinol Metab2019104(8):3501‑3513.

[4]

Moustaki MPaschou SAXekouki Pet al. Secondary diabetes mellitus in acromegaly[J]. Endocrine202381(1):1‑15.

[5]

Chomanicova NGazova AAdamickova Aet al. The role of AMPK/mTOR signaling pathway in anticancer activity of metformin[J]. Physiol Res202170(4):501‑508.

[6]

Abdelmoneim MAboalela MANaoe Yet al. The impact of metformin on tumor‑infiltrated immune cells: Preclinical and clinical studies[J]. Int J Mol Sci202324(17):13353.

[7]

Chaudhary SKulkarni A. Metformin: Past, present, and future[J]. Curr Diab Rep202424(6):119‑130.

[8]

Foretz MGuigas BViollet B. Metformin: Update on mechanisms of action and repurposing potential[J]. Nat Rev Endocrinol202319(8):460‑476.

[9]

He L. Metformin and systemic metabolism[J]. Trends Pharmacol Sci202041(11):868‑881.

[10]

Dong YQi YJiang Het al. The development and benefits of metformin in various diseases[J]. Front Med202317(3):388‑431.

[11]

Ziqubu KMazibuko‑Mbeje SEMthembu SXHet al. Anti‑obesity effects of metformin: A scoping review evaluating the feasibility of brown adipose tissue as a therapeutic target[J]. Int J Mol Sci202324(3):2227.

[12]

Lv ZGuo Y. Metformin and its benefits for various diseases[J]. Front Endocrinol(Lausanne)202011:191.

[13]

Tulipano G. How treatments with endocrine and metabolic drugs influence pituitary cell function[J]. Endocr Connect20209(2):R14‑R27.

[14]

Krysiak RKowalcze KSzkrobka Wet al. The association between vitamin D status and the impact of metformin on hypothalamic‑pituitary‑thyroid axis activity in women with subclinical hypothyroidism[J]. Pharmaceutics202416(8):1093.

[15]

Trefts EShaw RJ. AMPK: Restoring metabolic homeostasis over space and time[J]. Mol Cell202181(18):3677‑3690.

[16]

Steinberg GRHardie DG. New insights into activation and function of the AMPK[J]. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol202324(4):255‑272.

[17]

Hsu CCPeng DCai Zet al. AMPK signaling and its targeting in cancer progression and treatment[J]. Semin Cancer Biol202285:52‑68.

[18]

Tulipano GFaggi LSibilia Vet al. Points of integration between the intracellular energy sensor AMP‑activated protein kinase(AMPK) activity and the somatotroph axis function[J]. Endocrine201242(2):292‑298.

[19]

Bizzi MFDrummond JBPinheiro SVBet al. Activated AMP‑protein kinase(pAMPK) is overexpressed in human somatotroph pituitary adenomas[J]. Mol Cell Endocrinol2024592:112318.

[20]

Zhou QCao TLi Fet al. Mitochondria: A new intervention target for tumor invasion and metastasis[J]. Mol Med202430(1):129.

[21]

Feng JWang XYe Xet al. Mitochondria as an important target of metformin: The mechanism of action, toxic and side effects, and new therapeutic applications[J]. Pharmacol Res2022177:106114.

[22]

An JPei XZang Zet al. Metformin inhibits proliferation and growth hormone secretion of GH3 pituitary adenoma cells[J]. Oncotarget20178(23):37538‑37549.

[23]

Faggi LGiustina ATulipano G. Effects of metformin on cell growth and AMPK activity in pituitary adenoma cell cultures, focusing on the interaction with adenylyl cyclase activating signals[J]. Mol Cell Endocrinol2018470:60‑74.

[24]

Yu OHYSuissa S. Metformin and cancer: Solutions to a real‑world evidence failure[J]. Diabetes Care202346(5):904‑912.

[25]

Hasanvand A. The role of AMPK‑dependent pathways in cellular and molecular mechanisms of metformin: A new perspective for treatment and prevention of diseases[J]. Inflammopharmacology202230(3):775‑788.

[26]

Singal AGKanwal FLlovet JM. Global trends in hepatocellular carcinoma epidemiology: Implications for screening, prevention and therapy[J]. Nat Rev Clin Oncol202320(12):864‑884.

[27]

Hua YZheng YYao Yet al. Metformin and cancer hallmarks: Shedding new lights on therapeutic repurposing[J]. J Transl Med202321(1):403.

[28]

Mu WJiang YLiang Get al. Metformin: A promising antidiabetic medication for cancer treatment[J]. Curr Drug Targets202324(1):41‑54.

[29]

Gao JLiu YHan Get al. Metformin inhibits growth and prolactin secretion of pituitary prolactinoma cells and xenografts[J]. J Cell Mol Med201822(12):6368‑6379.

[30]

Tulipano G. Integrated or independent actions of metformin in target tissues underlying its current use and new possible applications in the endocrine and metabolic disorder area[J]. Int J Mol Sci202122(23):13068.

[31]

Tulipano GPaghera SMissale Cet al. Differential effects of metformin on reductive activity and energy production in pituitary tumor cells compared to myogenic precursors[J]. Endocrine202069(3):604‑614.

[32]

Sun YCheng JNie Det al. Metformin inhibits cell proliferation and ACTH secretion in AtT20 cells via regulating the MAPK pathway[J]. Mol Cell Endocrinol2024582:112140.

[33]

Thakur SDaley BKlubo‑Gwiezdzinska J. The role of an anti‑diabetic drug metformin in the treatment of endocrine tumors[J]. J Mol Endocrinol201963(2):R17‑R35.

[34]

Zamanian MYGolmohammadi MYumashev Aet al. Effects of metformin on cancers in experimental and clinical studies: Focusing on autophagy and AMPK/mTOR signaling pathways[J]. Cell Biochem Funct202442(4):e4071.

[35]

Tulipano GGiustina A. Autophagy in normal pituitary and pituitary tumor cells and its potential role in the actions of somatostatin receptor ligands in acromegaly[J]. Rev Endocr Metab Disord202122(2):147‑160.

[36]

Satou MWang JNakano‑Tateno Tet al. Autophagy inhibition suppresses hormone production and cell growth in pituitary tumor cells: A potential approach to pituitary tumors[J]. Mol Cell Endocrinol2024586:112196.

[37]

Lu GWu ZShang Jet al. The effects of metformin on autophagy[J]. Biomed Pharmacother2021137:111286.

[38]

Cai ZQian BPang Jet al. Celastrol induces apoptosis and autophagy via the AKT/mTOR signaling pathway in the pituitary ACTH‑secreting adenoma cells[J]. Curr Med Sci202242(2):387‑396.

[39]

Cecenarro LAMoyano Crespo GDGuido CBet al. Ultrastructural and molecular evidence of macroautophagy in functioning PitNETs and experimental pituitary tumors[J]. Neuroendocrinology2023113(7):705‑718.

[40]

Zhang YWang MJi Cet al. Treatment of acromegaly by rosiglitazone via upregulating 15‑PGDH in both pituitary adenoma and liver[J]. iScience202124(9):102983.

[41]

Spada AMantovani GLania AGet al. Pituitary tumors: Genetic and molecular factors underlying pathogenesis and clinical behavior[J]. Neuroendocrinology2022112(1):15‑33.

[42]

Keck E. Evidence for better response to somatostatin analogue treatment in acromegalic patients treated with metformin[D]. Endocrine Abstracts2019.

[43]

Albertelli MNazzari EDotto Aet al. Possible protective role of metformin therapy on colonic polyps in acromegaly: An exploratory cross‑sectional study[J]. Eur J Endocrinol2021184(3):419‑425.

[44]

Sulu CBektas ABGuzel SSet al. Effect of metformin on thyroid cancer risk in patients with acromegaly: A preliminary observational study[J]. Growth Horm IGF Res202266:101484.

[45]

Costa DCeccato FLauretta Ret al. The prevalence of secondary neoplasms in acromegalic patients: Possible preventive and/or protective role of metformin[J]. Int J Clin Oncol202126(6):1015‑1021.

[46]

Derwich ASykutera MBrominska Bet al. The role of activation of PI3K/AKT/mTOR and RAF/MEK/ERK pathways in aggressive pituitary adenomas‑new potential therapeutic approach‑a systematic review[J]. Int J Mol Sci202324(13):10952.

[47]

Peng YWang YZhou Cet al. PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway and its role in cancer therapeutics: Are we making headway[J]. Front Oncol202212:819128.

[48]

Vamvoukaki RChrysoulaki MBetsi Get al. Pituitary tumorigenesis‑implications for management[J]. Medicina(Kaunas)202359(4):812.

[49]

Soni UKJenny LHegde RS. IGF‑1R targeting in cancer‑does sub‑cellular localization matter[J]. J Exp Clin Cancer Res202342(1):273.

[50]

Liu FYe SZhao Let al. The role of IGF/IGF‑1R signaling in the regulation of cancer stem cells[J]. Clin Transl Oncol202426(12):2924‑2934.

[51]

Panwar VSingh ABhatt Met al. Multifaceted role of mTOR(mammalian target of rapamycin) signaling pathway in human health and disease[J]. Signal Transduct Target Ther20238(1):375.

[52]

Chiloiro SDe Marinis L. The immune microenviroment in somatotropinomas: From biology to personalized and target therapy[J]. Rev Endocr Metab Disord202324(2):283‑295.

[53]

Leon‑Gonzalez AJJimenez‑Vacas JMFuentes‑Fayos ACet al. Role of metformin and other metabolic drugs in the prevention and therapy of endocrine‑related cancers[J]. Curr Opin Pharmacol202160:17‑26.

[54]

Vázquez‑Borrego MCL‑López FGálvez‑Moreno MAet al. A new generation somatostatin‑dopamine analogue exerts potent antitumoral actions on pituitary neuroendocrine tumor cells[J]. Neuroendocrinology2020110(1‑2):70‑82.

[55]

Zhou CJiao YWang Ret al. STAT3 upregulation in pituitary somatotroph adenomas induces growth hormone hypersecretion[J]. J Clin Invest2015125(4):1692‑1702.

[56]

Yamamoto MBando H. A new insight into GH regulation and its disturbance from nutrition and autoimmune perspectives[J]. Endocr J202370(9):867‑874.

[57]

Vazquez‑Borrego MCFuentes‑Fayos ACHerrera‐Martinez ADet al. Statins directly regulate pituitary cell function and exert antitumor effects in pituitary tumors[J]. Neuroendocrinology2020110(11‑12):1028‐1041.

[58]

Jin KRuan LPu Jet al. Metformin suppresses growth and adrenocorticotrophic hormone secretion in mouse pituitary corticotroph tumor AtT20 cells[J]. Mol Cell Endocrinol2018478:53‑61.

[59]

Galal MAAl‑Rimawi MHajeer Aet al. Metformin: A dual‑role player in cancer treatment and prevention[J]. Int J Mol Sci202425(7).

[60]

Yao XGao SYan N. Structural biology of voltage‐gated calcium channels[J]. Channels(Austin)202418(1):2290807.

[61]

Heck JPalmeira Do Amaral ACWeissbach Set al. More than a pore: How voltage‑gated calcium channels act on different levels of neuronal communication regulation[J]. Channels(Austin)202115(1):322‑338.

[62]

Wen SLi CZhan X. Muti‑omics integration analysis revealed molecular network alterations in human nonfunctional pituitary neuroendocrine tumors in the framework of 3P medicine[J]. EPMA J202213(1):9‑37.

[63]

Amaru JBarbieri FArvigo Met al. Octreotide and pasireotide combination treatment in somatotroph tumor cells: Predominant role of SST(2) in mediating ligand effects[J]. Cancers(Basel)202113(8):1816.

[64]

Rojo‑Ruiz JNavas‑Navarro PNunez Let al. Imaging of endoplasmic reticulum Ca2+ in the intact pituitary gland of transgenic mice expressing a low affinity Ca2+ indicator[J]. Front Endocrinol(Lausanne)202011:615777.

[65]

Vazquez‑Borrego MCFuentes‑Fayos ACGahete MDet al. The pituitary gland is a novel major site of action of metformin in non‑human primates: A potential path to expand and integrate its metabolic actions[J]. Cell Physiol Biochem201849(4):1444‑1459.

[66]

Marrero‑Rodriguez DMoscona‑Nissan ASidauy‐Adissi Jet al. The molecular biology of sporadic acromegaly[J]. Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab202438(3):101895.

[67]

Yamato ANagano HGao Yet al. Proteogenomic landscape and clinical characterization of GH‑producing pituitary adenomas/somatotroph pituitary neuroendocrine tumors[J]. Commun Biol20225(1):1304.

[68]

Urwyler SAKaravitaki N. Refractory lactotroph adenomas[J]. Pituitary202326(3):273‑277.

[69]

Balinisteanu ICaba LFlorea Aet al. Unlocking the genetic secrets of acromegaly: Exploring the role of genetics in a rare disorder[J]. Curr Issues Mol Biol202446(8):9093‑9121.

[70]

Sahin HRSahin SSarac Bet al. The effect of metformin treatment on disease control in patients with acromegaly[J]. Endocr Metab Immune Disord Drug Targets202424(6):709‑716.

[71]

Chiloiro SGiampietro AGagliardi Iet al. Systemic comorbidities of acromegaly in real‑life experience: Which difference among young and elderly patients[J]. Endocrine202380(1):142‑151.

[72]

Nijenhuis‑Noort ECBerk KANeggers Set al. The fascinating interplay between growth hormone, insulin‑like growth factor‑1, and insulin[J]. Endocrinol Metab(Seoul)202439(1):83‑89.

[73]

Cristin LMontini AMartinino Aet al. The role of growth hormone and insulin growth factor 1 in the development of non‑alcoholic steato‑hepatitis: A systematic review[J]. Cells202312(4):517.

[74]

Aggarwal SMani SBalasubramanian Aet al. A review on coexisting giants: The interplay between acromegaly and diabetes mellitus[J]. Cureus202416(7):e64165.

[75]

Wani A. A acromegaly and diabetes‑a hand in glove combination[J]. Neurol India202068(5):1259‑1260.

[76]

Chiefari EMirabelli MLa Vignera Set al. Insulin resistance and cancer: In search for a causal link[J]. Int J Mol Sci202122(20):11137.

[77]

Wu ZWang WWei Let al. Current status and frontier tracking of clinical trials on Metformin for cancer treatment[J]. J Cancer Res Clin Oncol2023149(18):16931‑16946.

[78]

Esposito DBoguszewski CLColao Aet al. Diabetes mellitus in patients with acromegaly: Pathophysiology, clinical challenges and management[J]. Nat Rev Endocrinol202420(9):541‑552.

[79]

Stormann SSchopohl J. Drug treatment strategies for secondary diabetes in patients with acromegaly[J]. Expert Opin Pharmacother202021(15):1883‑1895.

[80]

Sari RAltinoz MAOzlu EBKet al. Treatment strategies for dopamine agonist‑resistant and aggressive prolactinomas: A comprehensive analysis of the literature[J]. Horm Metab Res202153(7):413‑424.

[81]

Wang XHu CLi Yet al. Chemotherapy of capecitabine plus temozolomide for refractory pituitary adenoma after tumor resection and its impact on serum prolactin, IGF‑1, and growth hormone[J]. J Oncol20222022:8361775.

[82]

Giustina ADi Filippo LUygur MMet al. Modern approach to resistant acromegaly[J]. Endocrine202380(2):303‑307.

[83]

Fleseriu MLanglois FLim DSTet al. Acromegaly: Pathogenesis, diagnosis, and management[J]. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol202210(11):804‑826.

基金资助

国家自然科学基金资助项目(31670518)

AI Summary AI Mindmap
PDF (527KB)

197

访问

0

被引

详细

导航
相关文章

AI思维导图

/