Objective Prior to incorporating fragmentation into predictive trajectory models, further research is required to gain a comprehensive understanding of its impact. This study explores the complexities of energy dissipation and fragmentation through experiments using rock spheres of varying diameters. The key outcomes are examined, including impact force, energy dissipation characteristics, and fragmentation conversion mechanisms. To quantify the degree of fragmentation, a novel index based on elastic strain energy is introduced, revealing the intricate relationship between energy dissipation and fragmentation. Methods This study employs the Zuojiaying rockfall in Guizhou as a geological prototype. Rockfall similarity materials were selected to prepare high-brittleness, low-strength rock samples with mechanical properties analogous to those of limestone. Uniaxial compression tests and Chevron Notched Brazilian Disk (CCNBD) tests were conducted under a range of strain rate conditions to enable a systematic analysis of the effects of strain rate on the material's mechanical properties, energy dissipation, and fracture toughness. To further investigate the dynamic characteristics of normal rockfall impacts, a custom-designed normal impact testing device was developed, featuring an automatic release system for precise control. Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV) and ImagePy image processing technology were employed to analyze pivotal parameters, including impact velocity and fragment size distribution. Furthermore, the effects of rockfall size and impact velocity on impact force, coefficient of restitution, and fragmentation degree were examined. Finally, the study focused on energy conversion and fragmentation characteristics under different impact conditions, proposed a fragmentation quantification index based on elastic strain energy, and compared the energy conversion and fragmentation differences between normal and inclined slab impacts. Results and Discussions Based on the geological prototype of the Zuojiaying rockfall, rock-like materials were prepared. As the strain rate increased, the characteristic stress exhibited an overall increasing trend, while fracture toughness initially increased and then decreased. Elastic strain energy was continuously accumulated within the rock before the peak and was rapidly released after the peak. Due to the initiation and propagation of cracks, dissipated energy continued to grow. However, before the peak, its value was lower than that of elastic strain energy, while after the peak, the growth rate of dissipated energy increased, surpassing that of elastic strain energy. The results of the normal impact tests conducted on the rock-like spheres revealed four dynamic fragmentation characteristics and four stages of dynamic fragmentation. Following fragmentation, the larger fragments underwent further compression, resulting in additional fragmentation, with a significantly greater number of smaller fragments than larger fragments. Due to the action of high hoop tensile strain rates, the smaller fragments detached from the larger fragments at high speeds. As the falling height (or impact velocity) and specimen size increased, the impact force also increased. Additionally, an increase in the elastic modulus of the impacted slab led to an increase in the impact force. The energy conversion analysis of the dynamic fragmentation process demonstrates that the pre-impact kinetic energy, converted from the initial potential energy, dissipates in the form of slab deformation energy, elastic wave dissipation energy, elastoplastic deformation energy, fracture energy, and post-impact kinetic energy of the fragments. Among these, elastoplastic deformation energy, post-impact kinetic energy, and fracture energy account for more than 80% of the total energy dissipation. As the pre-impact kinetic energy increases, elastic wave dissipation energy, slab deformation energy, post-impact kinetic energy, elastoplastic deformation energy, and fracture energy all increase to varying degrees. Meanwhile, the energy conversion rate is negatively correlated with the initial total energy. Based on this analysis, a dynamic fragmentation degree index B, based on the degree of elastic strain energy release, is proposed. As impact velocity and impact force increase, the fragmentation degree curves of B and B3 (area ratio) show consistency, indicating that this index effectively describes the degree of rockfall fragmentation and accurately reflects the energy conversion during the fragmentation process. Additionally, a comparison of normal and inclined slab impact test results reveals that fragmentation degree and energy conversion rate are primarily influenced by the incident angle and impact velocity, with fragmentation degree negatively correlated with the coefficient of restitution. Conclusions The fragmentation process during impact exhibits distinct stages and varying degrees of severity, with energy dissipation primarily consisting of elastoplastic deformation energy and fracture energy, which together account for as much as 91.94% of the total. The kinetic energy retained by the remaining fragmented blocks comprises only 8.05% of the total, and the energy conversion rate is inversely proportional to the initial total energy. To quantify the degree of fragmentation, a metric based on elastic strain energy has been defined and validated for its feasibility in analyzing the fragmentation process of specimens during impact. A further comparison with inclined slab impact tests reveals that the impact angle significantly influences the degree of specimen fragmentation and controls the efficiency of energy conversion.
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